From: Subject: Wai-chee Dimock - Nonbiological Clock: Literary History against Newtonian Mechanics - The South Atlantic Quarterly 102:1 Date: Mon, 3 May 2004 20:34:22 -0700 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_008F_01C4314E.04A1F6F0"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2800.1409 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_008F_01C4314E.04A1F6F0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://0-muse.jhu.edu.opac.sfsu.edu/journals/south_atlantic_quarterly/v102/102.1dimock.html Wai-chee Dimock - Nonbiological Clock: Literary = History against Newtonian Mechanics - The South Atlantic Quarterly = 102:1
Copyright =A9 2003 Duke University Press. = All rights=20 reserved.

The South Atlantic = Quarterly=20 102.1 (2003) 153-177=20
 
[Access=20 article in PDF]=20

Nonbiological Clock:
Literary History = against=20 Newtonian Mechanics

Wai=20 Chee Dimock

[Figures]=20

I take as my starting point an "obituary" Einstein puts at a = dramatic=20 turn in his "Autobiographical Notes," an obituary for Newton:=20

Enough of this. Newton, forgive me; you = found=20 the only way which, in your age, was just about possible for a = man of=20 highest thought and creative power. The concepts, which you = created, are=20 even today still guiding our thinking in physics, although we = now know=20 that they will have to be replaced. . . .=20

"Is this supposed to be an obituary?" the astonished reader = will=20 likely ask. I would like to reply: essentially yes. 1

An obituary for Newton is in order because relativistic physics = is a=20 "revolution" in Thomas Kuhn's sense: a shift in paradigm so = profound that=20 it remakes the protocol of the field from the ground up. 2 Tenets that were once ironclad are no = longer so. No=20 one would be able to say that "all of physics could be founded = upon=20 Newton's mechanics." 3=20

That revolution suggests one context in which to trace the = "afterlives"=20 of Romanticism, especially of Blake. Einstein's objection to = Newton,=20 [End Page 153] striking a blow that hits home, is = nonetheless not=20 the first on record. Blake's objection, not in the least = temperate, has=20 long been a salient fact in literary history. E. P. Thompson = invokes it as=20 a counter-Enlightenment, a tradition of London Dissent pitted = against a=20 mechanical psychology and epistemology; Donald Ault, Stuart = Peterfreund,=20 and Mark Lussier have made even stronger scientific claims on its = behalf.=20 4 It would be misleading to speak of Blake = as a=20 forerunner of modern physics; it would be equally misleading to = cordon him=20 off from that development. For Blake has been transcribed, so to = speak: by=20 someone who has not read him, who is egged on only by their common = opponent, and who, in turning modern physics against Newton, must = do so in=20 a language incomprehensible to the poet, perhaps abhorrent to him. = Blake's=20 battle has been fought and won by strange hands, on strange = terrain.=20

In this essay I would like to reverse this odd development. = Keeping in=20 mind what objecting to Newton has done to the discipline of = physics, I=20 would like to ask what effects it might have on literary studies. = If=20 physics has anything to tell us, it is that Blake's arguments are = worth=20 revisiting: not for their historical interest, significant as that = might=20 be, but for what they have to say about the field of Romanticism = as it now=20 stands and as it contributes to the study of literature broadly = defined.=20 5 What does it mean for literary critics to = take Blake=20 seriously, as physicists have taken Einstein seriously? If a = quarrel with=20 Newton has led to a paradigmatic shift in physics, a break with an = once=20 foundational ontology, how might it alter the grounds of literary = studies?=20 6 The afterlives of Romanticism seem to me = most=20 consequential in this sense, as a diachronic challenge to what is=20 currently normative: a noncompliance with the premises now = governing the=20 field, a noncompliance with the analytic coordinates now = naturalized by=20 practice. 7=20

It is interesting to look at Newton in this light, to see what = premises=20 govern his mechanics, what coordinates "ground" his laws, laws of = motion=20 celestial and terrestrial. These laws, as mathematical = formalizations, are=20 attempts to give a "geometrical account of motion." 8 They are attempts to describe temporal = phenomena=97the=20 change of location in time=97in terms of measurable units in = space. This=20 measurement of time by means of space is crucial to Newton, = Alexandre=20 Koyre suggests, for the ambition of his mathematical physics is = nothing=20 less than to "subject motion to number," 9 to harness temporal events to a quantified = metric.=20 This quantification cannot proceed on its own. It requires a prior = relay:=20 a subsuming of motion [End Page 154] by geometry, which is = to say,=20 a subsuming of temporal difference by spatial regularities. What = results,=20 Koyre goes on to say, is a strangely "hypostatized" paradigm. Even = though=20 Newton is describing the motion of planets, the motion of earthly=20 projectiles, such motion takes place in a geometrical space that = is itself=20 completely uniform, completely predictable, not varying from one = locale to=20 another, every unit length "equivalent and even identical." Motion = here is=20 "changeless change," in "timeless time." 10=20

Quantification and spatialization go hand in hand. Newton's=20 mathematical laws require the prior "existence of an absolute, = unchanging=20 system of coordinates." 11 This system of coordinates is indeed = what he=20 emphasizes in the General Scholium of the Principia:=20

Absolute, true, and mathematical time, = of=20 itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation = to=20 anything external, and by another name is called duration. . . . = Absolute space, in its own nature, without relation to anything=20 external, remains always similar and immovable. . . . As the = order of=20 the parts of time is immutable, so also is the order of the = parts of=20 space. . . . All things are placed in time as to order of = succession;=20 and in space as to order of situation. It is from their essence = or=20 nature that they are places, and that the primary places of = things=20 should be movable, is absurd. These are therefore the absolute = places.=20 12

Space and time are absolute for Newton not only in the sense = that they=20 are objective and immutable but also in the sense that they are = fixed=20 numbers, expressible as "absolute places." Mathematical truth, for = Newton,=20 requires a kind of spatial determinism. Time here is thus a = dependent, a=20 derivative. It is parasitic upon and fully contained by a more = primary=20 term. To quote Newton again: "All things are placed in time as to = order of=20 succession; and in space as to order of situation. . . . These are = therefore the absolute places." Not only is there a syntactic = equivalence=20 between time and space but the latter is actually the antecedent, = the=20 originating idea from which time derives its shape, as a = longitudinal=20 "order of succession," just like a latitudinal "order of = situation." Space=20 provides the mental image for time; space dictates the ontology of = both.=20 13 Conceived in this image, time functions = in exactly=20 the same way as a spatial coordinate. It is a place, a location, a = sequence of units on a calibrated line=97and, for all those = reasons, a=20 container to which any event can be assigned. [End Page = 155]=20

Newtonian mechanics stands or falls on this image of time as a=20 container. It is as if time were a filing cabinet, made up of an = infinite=20 number of slots. Into these slots any given event can be = automatically=20 filed away: into a century, a year, a month. Placement is key. = Everything=20 must be assigned a temporal address; that address must be locked = into a=20 numerical series; that series guarantees an = identity-across-the-board at=20 any given point. Newton spatializes time and, in the same gesture, = standardizes it. His temporal axis, as an axis serially numbered, = is an=20 axis of uniform cross-sections. Events are assumed to belong = together=20 because they take place inside the same numbered slice of time. = They have=20 the same identity because they have the same serial address. What = this=20 means is that every event is permanently tied to one set of = synchronic=20 neighbors, neighbors that situate it, comprise its measure of = time,=20 dictate to it a single context, and lock it inside the presumptive = unity=20 of a chronological number.=20

I have been describing Newtonian mechanics, but, as is readily=20 apparent, I have also been describing a dominant paradigm in = literary=20 studies, a synchronic historicism that bears more than a family=20 resemblance to the numerical determinism of scientific modernity. = Newton,=20 after all, was both a physicist and a historian: the author not = only of=20 the Principia but also of The Chronology of Ancient = Kingdom=20 Emended, an attempt to "establish scientific grounds for the = study of=20 universal history," based on "a definitive measure of calculating = time."=20 14 Mechanics has offshoots in other = disciplines=97in=20 history, of course, and, I would argue, in literary studies as = well. Here,=20 numerical determinism also begins with an image of time as = spatialized,=20 serialized, homogenized. It begins, that is, with a chronological = date.=20 This date is adduced as a kind of automatic unifier, yielding up a = segment=20 of time against which the scrutinized text is mapped, and inside = whose=20 numerical borders it is firmly placed. One year, five years, ten = years:=20 these are the standard durations we use to "contextualize" a text, = on the=20 assumption that these slices of time are integral, unified not = only by=20 their standard unit lengths but, above all, by the serial numbers = that=20 mark their borders. Events are deemed pertinent to one another if = they fit=20 inside those borders, if they are bound by two serial numbers = that, if not=20 exactly consecutive, are close enough to being that, the distance = between=20 them often limited to single digits. These digits are assumed to = exercise=20 a binding force, to yield an analytic domain both necessary and=20 sufficient, containing both the web of relations producing the = text and=20 the web of relations flowing from its presence in the world. = [End Page=20 156]=20

Newtonian literary studies=97it is helpful to call it by = name=97takes=20 numerical determinism and turns it into a style of historical = explanation.=20 Chronological dates have a mechanical authority here. They = automatically=20 define what counts as context, what counts as meaningful duration = for=20 historical analysis. Since the temporal axis here is effectively a = numerical axis, there is only one way to register that duration, = one way=20 to figure historical causality, one way to measure the distance = between=20 two events. Events are either simultaneous or they are not; they = are=20 either far apart or close together. The distance between them is = fixed by=20 a number that never changes. The year 1325, separated from 1825 by = five=20 hundred years, is obviously not adjacent by any ruler = consecutively=20 numbered and cannot ever be imagined to be adjacent. Their = spatial=20 separation is taken for granted, because any point of contact = would not be=20 subject to counting, would not show up on a quantified metric. The = relegation of such a date to the causally unthinkable is a stiff = but quite=20 logical price exacted by numerical determinism. Causality across = five=20 hundred years is just too messy, too anarchic. Synchrony, however, = is=20 nicely measurable and demonstrable: a unified container, = expressible as an=20 "absolute place," expressible as a numerical constant. Or so = Newtonians=20 think.=20

Einstein disabuses them. Relativistic physics parts ways with = Newtonian=20 mechanics on just this point: the absolute measurability of = synchrony.=20 Einstein has "difficulty with all physical statements in which the = concept=20 =91simultaneous' plays a part." 15 Rather than accepting the concept as a = given, he=20 asks whether it is an automatic fact, a fact that can be = established=20 simply by consulting a serial number. Is there such a thing as a=20 synchronized "now," an identity-across-the-board established by a=20 mechanical clock? Is synchrony a numerical constant that dictates = an=20 eternal relation between two temporal neighbors? Does the motion = of an=20 object make any difference to its space and time coordinates? And = if so,=20 what difference does that make to the concept of the = simultaneous?=20 To answer these questions, Einstein considers the phenomenal world = as seen=20 from two frames of reference in two different states of motion. = Using a=20 moving train as one frame of reference, and the railroad = embankment as the=20 other one, he asks whether the timing for two flashes of lighting = can be=20 assigned to a unified synchronic plane. Can they be seen as = simultaneous=20 in both places?=20

With palpable satisfaction Einstein writes: "The answer must be = in the=20 negative." 16 The two flashes of lightning A and B = might be=20 simultaneous for the observer standing still on the embankment. = But, if=20 this is the case, [End Page 157] they would not be = simultaneous for=20 an observer on the train moving away from A toward B. Since this = observer=20 is shortening his distance to B and lengthening his distance to A, = he=20 "will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will = see the=20 one emitted from A." 17 And so, "Events which are simultaneous = with=20 reference to the embankment are not simultaneous with respect to = the=20 train, and vice versa (relativity of simultaneity). Every = reference-body=20 (coordinate system) has its own particular time; unless we are = told the=20 reference-body to which the statement of time refers, there is no = meaning=20 in a statement of the time of an event." 18 Simultaneity turns out not to be a = numerical=20 constant, an eternal identity-across-the-board. Two events might = be=20 simultaneous in one frame of reference, but in a different frame = they=20 would not be. The "now" experienced in one location, then, cannot = be the=20 same as the "now" experienced in a differently moving location. = These two=20 nows cannot be unified, cannot be expressed as an unchanging = serial=20 number. Einstein, in this way, turns Newton's absolute truth into = a=20 conditional truth, specific to one set of coordinates, not = generalizable=20 beyond those coordinates. This is what he calls relativity. Of = course, for=20 Einstein, relativity is itself a mathematical concept. Its = mathematics is=20 non-Euclidean geometry, the geometry exhibited by space-time when = faced=20 with the requirement that the speed of light be invariant. 19 And, in making that invariance of speed = the=20 foundation for physics, Einstein is as committed as Newton is to=20 mathematical formalism. Motion, under relativity, is no less = subject to=20 number, though light (rather than space-time) now stands as the = numerical=20 constant. 20=20

Relativistic physics, even as it writes the obituary of = classical=20 mechanics, remains the latter's kin. It cannot challenge Newton on = nonmathematical grounds. Any such challenge would have to come = from the=20 humanities, especially literature, a field shaped by extended ties = stretching across irregular lengths of time, chaotic durations = messing up=20 the synchronic plane of serial numbers. "Literature," I want to = suggest,=20 has until quite recently been experienced as a universe only = loosely=20 quantified by dates: its temporal distances not strictly measured, = keeping=20 at bay the regulative power of the clock and the calendar. No loss = has=20 been greater than the replacement of that universe by one = convicted in=20 advance of synchronicity, serial by definition. 21 But there is no reason why this should = go on. And=20 no one has more to say on this score than Blake.=20

In book 1 of Milton, Blake reaches back to the = seventeenth=20 century and [End Page 158] pulls Milton forward to the = nineteenth.=20 "Say first! what mov'd Milton, who walkd about in Eternity / One = hundred=20 years" (1:16=9617). 22 Blake's arithmetic is not very precise = here.=20 Milton has actually been in eternity longer than that, having died = in=20 1674, 132 years before 1806, the date on the title page of the = poem named=20 after him. The imprecision is the point. One hundred years, 132 = years=97the=20 exact figure does not matter. Blake is not doing any actual = counting, not=20 equating time with the measurable unit length of the calendar and = the=20 clock. His numerical lexicon=97"one hundred years," Los's "six = thousand=20 years of labor," the "seven days of eternity," and so on=97uses = the=20 convention of numbering only to turn it on its head. Numbers here = are=20 hermetic rather than quantitative. They do not serialize time but = encrypt=20 it, expressing it as code, as Kathleen Raine suggests, as if they = were=20 "words in a sentence of complex and ambiguous grammar." 23=20

This deserialization of time makes literary history possible. = Milton is=20 able to come back to the nineteenth century because he is not = sequenced=20 and contained by only one set of dates. And he is not sequenced = and=20 contained because someone in the nineteenth century is still = reading him,=20 naming a poem after him, and putting the resounding words from = Paradise=20 Lost=97"And justify the Ways of God to men" (bk. 1, ll. = 26)=97on its title=20 page, though not without a slight amendment. Blake's motto reads=20 "To justify the Ways of God to Men." He quotes Milton, but = not=20 exactly, not slavishly. 24 Mechanical reproduction of a = standardized text is=20 not the point here, and perhaps never the point for Blake as an=20 illuminator and printmaker. His hand-inscribed letters, mixing = typography=20 with calligraphy, invokes not the uniformity of typeset print but = the=20 manual variability of autograph. These letters were not even = carved with=20 an engraving tool, as Robert Essick and Joseph Viscomi point out, = but=20 traced with a quill or pen on copper plates. 25 This dissent from standardized print, = like his=20 dissent from standardized chronology, bends and stretches time, = takes it=20 outside the dictates of the mechanical.=20

Milton is closer to Blake than 132 years would suggest. But = what=20 exactly are the circumstances that lead to this deserialization of = time?=20 The most immediate one, Blake tells us, is "A Bards prophetic = Song!"=20 (M 2:22). The Bard sings of many things, beginning with = Los,=20 hammering away to create the Ages of the universe. He sings of = Satan, a=20 bright, regular, untiring creature, mechanically inclined, whose = home=20 turns out to be up above rather than down below, in charge of the = movement=20 of the planets. As the unhappy father, Los, says: [End Page = 159]=20

O Satan my youngest born, art thou not = Prince=20 of the Starry Hosts
And of the Wheels of Heaven, to turn the = Mills=20 day & night?
Art thou not Newtons Pantocrator weaving = the Woof=20 of Locke?=20

(M 4:9=9611) =

Pantocrator 3Dgreek=20=20 is the word for God in the Greek New Testament, a word used by = Newton in=20 his Principia and retained as a Greek word by Andrew Motte = in his=20 English translation, defined there as "Lord God . . . or Universal = Ruler."=20 26 Newton's mechanics, his laws of = planetary motion,=20 would not have been possible without this pantocrator, this ruler = giving=20 him an absolute system of coordinates, "Mathematical proportion of = Length=20 Bredth Highth" (M 4:27). These numerical constants are the = woof of=20 Locke's empiricism, a "Philosophy of Five Senses" (SL = 4:16). They=20 are also the woof of something else: the "precise clock time" = identified=20 by E. P. Thompson as the work regime of industrial capitalism. = 27 Satan is thus the pantocrator both = within the=20 academy and without. He presides over the mechanized time of = planetary=20 motion, and he presides over the mechanized time of the "Mills" on = earth,=20 28 mills that count among their products = both=20 manufactured cloth and human cogs. 29 Jerusalem is still more emphatic = on this=20 point:=20

I turn my eyes to the Schools &=20 Universities of Europe
And there behold the Loom of Locke = whose Woof=20 rages dire
Washd by the Water-wheels of Newton. black the = cloth=20
In heavy wreathes folds over every Nation; cruel Works =
Of many=20 Wheels I view, wheel without wheel, with cogs tyrannic =
Moving by=20 compulsion each other.=20

(J 15:14=9620) =

The tyranny of mechanics is what brings Milton back to the = nineteenth=20 century, what forces Blake to bring him back. Anachronism is their = joint=20 defense against mechanized time, for anachronism is duration = wrested from=20 the clock, a far-flung tie that is itself a rebuke to serial = numbers. The=20 very temporal structure of Milton is already a protest, a = form of=20 action: "To cast off Rational Demonstration" (M 41:3), "To = cast off=20 Bacon, Locke & Newton" (M 41:5). But=97and no one is = more aware=20 of this than Blake himself=97that action cannot be achieved by one = person=20 alone. For anachronism can happen only when the arrow of time is=20 relationally reversed, only when it is looped backward, looped = through=20 some antecedent figures, temporal [End Page 160] aliens who = appear=20 out of sequence, violating the law of seriality. These aliens are = still=20 alive, even though dates pronounce them long dead. They are still = alive,=20 because their duration is no longer an individual matter. Lifted = from the=20 finite body of one person=97lifted from its numerical brevity, its = determinate progress from life to death=97this duration has become = something=20 shapeless, nonvectorial, an unsequenced free-for-all. This, then, = is=20 Blake's image of literary history: diachronically extended, = irregularly=20 inhabited, not based on the biological individual, not governed by = the=20 unidirectional passage of a single life span.=20

Literary history that begins with the return of Milton to the=20 nineteenth century can indeed go head to head with Newton on his = central=20 tenet: the seriality of time. Blake the biological individual, = with his=20 numerical brevity, is not up to the task. The nonbiological Milton = has to=20 be brought back to do the fighting, taking on Urizen, the = Newtonian spirit=20 of fallen reason, whose name derives from 3D"greek=20 , to limit, with the cognate form Uranus, signifying Lord of the=20 Firmament. 30 But "fight" is probably the wrong word = for what=20 transpires between these two.=20

Silent they met, and silent strove among = the=20 streams, of Arnon
Even to Mahanaim, when with cold hand = Urizen=20 stoop'd down
And took up water from the river Jordan: = pouring on=20
To Miltons brain the icy fluid from his broad cold palm. =
But=20 Milton took of the red clay of Succoth, moulding it with care=20
Between his palms: and filling up the furrows of many years=20
Beginning at the feet of Urizen, and on the bones =
Creating new=20 flesh on the Demon cold, and building him,
As with new clay = a Human=20 form in the Valley of Beth Peor.=20

(M 19:6=9614) =

In the same place, Mahanaim, where Jacob once wrestled with God = (Genesis 32:2), Milton now wrestles with Urizen. Urizen is = fighting in=20 earnest. He turns the ground under Milton into freezing marble = (M=20 19:4), he tries to kill off his opponent with an "icy intellectual = baptism." 31 But Milton is workmanlike rather than = warriorlike.=20 He has no weapon to speak of, only red clay. This clay he molds = with care,=20 mending his opponent rather than destroying him, putting flesh on = his=20 hollows, kneading numerical laws into folds of words.=20

The battle with Newton is not fought on biological grounds and = is not=20 [End Page 161] even a fight in any conventional sense of = the word.=20 Changing the rules of combat, turning these on their head=97the = feet of=20 Urizen get treated first=97Milton also turns Newtonian time from a = coldly=20 sovereign ruler into something molded by human hands. This = humanization of=20 mechanics is something Blake himself has done. In his color print=20 Newton (1795), the scientist is not only kept intact but=20 deliberately idealized: not harmed, not taken apart, = golden-headed,=20 gloriously muscular (Figure 1). Newton is absorbed in his mathematical = laws, his=20 gaze fixed on his diagram, the golden compass extending from his = hand and=20 reflecting the goldenness of his head. That head and that hand = have=20 produced three triangles=97one traced on the paper, one formed by = the=20 compass, and one formed by his fingers=97all three elegantly = geometric and=20 eminently measurable. Blake's head and hand, meanwhile, are doing=20 something very different. Acknowledging Newton's geometric laws = and=20 putting them in the foreground, he nonetheless concedes [End = Page=20 162] nothing to their authority. The composition of the = drawing as a=20 whole literally puts these laws in their place. Fully one-third of = the=20 drawing is a black-blue, opaque medium, presumably the "Sea of = Space and=20 Time" (M 15:46), for Blake the medium of the fallen = physical world,=20 inundated by the "flood of the five senses." Another third of the = drawing=20 is the surface on which Newton sits, apparently a rock, but = covered by=20 some luxuriant vegetation, ambiguously textured, with hints of two = claws=20 extending in the opposite direction from Newton's feet. And, = beginning=20 with those feet, the body of Newton cannot be more different from = the=20 figures he is tracing. The lines of the triangles are clean, flat, = rectilinear; the lines of the body are bursting and bulging, ropes = of=20 muscles giving it a sinuous thickness all the more striking = against the=20 thinness of the triangles. Blake has indeed molded Newton anew, = put flesh=20 on the Demon cold.=20

Mechanics does not have to be demolished, but its serial ruler = does=20 have to be layered over by some sort of "clay" if human beings are = not to=20 freeze in their numerical finitude. That clay cannot come from = physical=20 life. The ticking clock of the body can yield no continuity beyond = its own=20 limits. And so, just as Blake conjures up numbers only to relieve = them=20 from the dictates of quantification, he conjures up body parts = only to=20 relieve them from a strictly physiological regime. Blake's left = foot, for=20 instance, is now much more than an anatomical locomotive device. = It has=20 become a cipher, an entry point to dimensions of space and time = not=20 computable by any biological clock.=20

But Milton entering my Foot . . . =
But I=20 knew not that it was Milton, for man cannot know
What passes = in his=20 members till periods of Space & Time
Reveal the secrets = of=20 Eternity: for more extensive
Than any other earthly things, = are Mans=20 earthly lineaments.
And all this vegetable World appeared on = my left=20 Foot,
As a bright sandal formd immortal of precious stones = &=20 gold:
I stooped down & bound it on to walk forward thro' = Eternity.=20

(M 21:4, 8=9614) =

What does it mean for Milton to have entered Blake's left foot? = Why the=20 foot? Why should the union between these two poets take this = bizarre form?=20 And why should there be a union to begin with?=20

The "Milton" that has entered Blake's foot can hardly be a = biological=20 entity. Blake is walking with the help of this Milton, but not = walking all=20 over [End Page 163] him. For this incorporeal thing is a = separate=20 thing no more, not trodden under foot because it is part of the = foot. It=20 is an interesting conception of literary history. The authors here = are=20 literally "Two yet but one" (M 20:1). Their extension and = duration=20 are fused, fused by necessity, because the numerical finitude of = any one=20 person=97Blake was seventy when he died=97is not adequate to the = full weight=20 of time. As a biological individual Blake is completely under the = thumb of=20 Newton. His days are numbered. Only literary history can give him = days=20 that are not: days that stretch backward and forward, weaving in = and out=20 of other days, an indeterminate fabric. He needs these unnumbered = days to=20 be Blake, if "Blake" is to be anything other than a finite = "Vegetable=20 Body" (M 42:27). Still, that vegetable body is not to be = cast=20 aside: just as Urizen is not to be cast aside, Newtonian mechanics = is not=20 to be cast aside. Rather, these burdens are to be spread out, = spread=20 across time, lightened to the weight of a sandal, worn around the = foot.=20

Blake needs the nonbiological Milton and needs himself to = become=20 nonbiological in at least one sense, to have any freedom from = serial=20 numbers. Milton, of course, has already set an example. Even = though he=20 calls his trip to the nineteenth century a trip to "Eternal Death" = (M 14:14), that death-bearing century in fact constitutes a = grim=20 but not uninteresting condition of life for Milton. Eternity, fed = by the=20 cycle of the continually dying, is no longer equatable with = terminal=20 stasis, just as Death, enacted again and again as a reproducible = process,=20 is no longer equatable with terminal oblivion. Continual death is = here the=20 genetic condition for continual life. What Milton dramatizes=97as = he dies=20 first in the seventeenth century and yet again in the = nineteenth=97is a=20 looping and layering of time, a doubling and redoubling of some = stubborn=20 words, a brave detour before that taut finishing line, beyond = which time=20 no longer has consequence. Time does have consequence for Milton, = even=20 though he is biologically dead. And, even though that consequence = might=20 not be anything he wants, there is not much he can do, having = already=20 surrendered himself, become somebody else's left foot. A = nonvolitional=20 hybrid of sorts has come into the world. 32 This is Milton's lineaments in the = nineteenth=20 century, lineaments given him by others, relieving him of his = previously=20 vested form. For that form has not been perfect. In Marriage of = Heaven=20 and Hell, Blake has said this about Paradise Lost:=20

Those who restrain desire, do so = because=20 theirs is weak enough to be restrained; and the restrainer or = reason=20 usurps its place & governs the unwilling. [End Page = 164]=20

And being restrained it by degrees becomes passive till it is = only=20 the shadow of desire.=20

The history of this is written in Paradise Lost. & the = Governor=20 or Reason is call'd Messiah.=20

And the original Archangel or possessor of the command of the = heavenly host, is calld the Devil or Satan and his children are = call'd=20 Sin & Death=20

(MHH plate 5) =

Blake then goes on to make the famous (and somewhat misleading) = claim=20 that Milton is "of the Devils party without knowing it" = (MHH plate=20 5). What he means is that Milton is mostly right about the Fall of = Man,=20 except for one thing. He has gotten the names switched around, = calling=20 things by the opposite of what they are. The true Messiah is = called Satan,=20 and Satan, the force of prohibition, is wrongly called the = Messiah. This=20 error is not altogether fatal, which is why Milton is still a = sublime=20 poet, why he is called upon to wrestle with Urizen. But, for = Blake, there=20 are definite lapses in Paradise Lost, such as this = description of=20 the cosmos: "They [the Constellations] as they move / Their Starry = dance=20 in numbers they compute / Days, months, and years, towards his=20 all-chearing Lamp / Turn swift their various motions, or are = turnd/ By his=20 Magnetic beam . . ." (3:579=9683).=20

Celebrating the motion of the planets, Milton takes his measure = of time=20 from their numerical sequence, the "numbers they compute." His = chart of=20 universal history imposes a mechanical order upon time, Kenneth J. = Knoespel points out, much as "the coordinates of analytic geometry = bring=20 new meaning to space." 33 Milton and Newton do sometimes see eye = to eye,=20 worshiping the same god, the same pantocrator. That is why the = poet has to=20 be brought back, to "die" one more time in the nineteenth century, = for he=20 too, no less than Newton, is due for some major overhaul. 34 There can be no textual integrity for = Milton as he=20 is fused with Blake, just as there can be no bodily integrity. His = dates=20 are taken beyond the limits of the biological clock the better to=20 surrender their unity. Literary history is retroactive and utterly = ruthless in wiping out the claims of the finite individual. Only = in thus=20 wiping out can it free up a stretch of time not based on one life = span.=20 Thus Milton: "I will go down to self annihilation and eternal = death, /=20 Lest the Last Judgment come & find me unannihilate" (M=20 14:22=9623).=20

Eternity as a continuum of annihilation is probably not = flattering to=20 the bodily ego. It is what the biological clock dictates. And, = oddly=20 enough, it is [End Page 165] also what literary history = requires.=20 The nonbiological clock here quarrels not at all with the = biological in=20 its finitude of numbers. Still, that finitude is the goad for a = contrary=20 measure of time. Insofar as it is able to yield that contrary = measure,=20 literary history extends to human beings a duration honoring the = limits of=20 physiology but resisting its subjection to mechanics. For what = literary=20 history offers is time drawn out to irregular lengths, drawn out = by the=20 intensities and proximities of each reading, at odds with any = standard=20 timetable. Life spans are here endlessly undone and endlessly = recuperated.=20 Numerical finitude is the starting point but not the endpoint. No = obituary=20 is handed out: not to Milton, and not even to Newton.=20

"Time is the mercy of Eternity" (M 24:72) in this sense, = routine=20 annihilations notwithstanding. Kept alive by the nonbiological = clock that=20 is literary history, Newton is still at large in Milton, = still=20 spatializing time, as he is wont to do. These spatial units, = however, are=20 no longer the mechanical units he demands. Not uniformly slotted = or=20 serially numbered, they are individually made, made with hands, = each=20 separately crafted, adorned with bright ornaments, made for human = use, and=20 merciful to human mortality.=20

But others of the Sons of Los build = Moments=20 & Minutes & Hours
And Days & Months & Years = &=20 Ages & Periods; wondrous buildings
And every Moment has = a Couch=20 of gold for soft repose,
(A Moment equals a pulsation of the = artery)=20
And between every two Moments stands a Daughter of Beulah =
To=20 feed the Sleepers on their Couches with maternal care.
And = every=20 Minute has an azure Tent with silken Veils.
And every Hour = has a=20 bright golden Gate carved with skill.
And every Day & = Night, has=20 Walls of brass & Gates of adamant,
Shining like precious = stones=20 & ornamented with appropriate signs:
And every Month, a = silver=20 paved Terrace builded high:
And every Year, invulnerable = Barriers=20 with high Towers.
And every Age is Moated deep with Bridges = of=20 silver & gold.
And every Seven Ages is Incircled with a = Flaming=20 Fire.=20

(M 28:44=9657) =

For Blake, as for Heidegger, time is a built environment. = 35 There is nothing natural about it; it is = not given=20 but made. This unnatural status of time is what enables = human=20 beings to dwell in it, to be sheltered by its walls, tents, = couches, and=20 to leave their mark there, a labor-intensive signature, crafted = [End=20 Page 166] brick by brick, the most gorgeous to come from human = hands.=20 Unnatural time is something that takes the entire history of the = species=20 to emerge, now housing those human "vegetables" lying there on = their=20 couches. Only this built environment can save human beings from = biology.=20 Only this built environment can offer significant duration to a = species=20 doomed by numerical finitude. To think of literary history as a=20 nonbiological clock is to think of time itself as neither = mechanical nor=20 even corporeal. Wrested from the lock-stepped, unidirectional flow = of the=20 life cycle, literary history is merciful and therefore not = sequential, not=20 governed by the law of serialization. Those who dwell in it are = free to=20 take what they want, in whatever order, for the raw material = here=97as=20 Blake's steadily cascading sentences make clear=97is nothing more = than=20 words, a lexis not sequenced, as malleable as clay, and as = commonly=20 available. The human species could not have found a better cover. = Layered=20 over by this stuff, biology is both preserved and stretched beyond = its=20 limits: "Every time less than a pulsation of the artery / Is equal = in its=20 period & value to Six Thousand Years" (M 28:62=9663).=20

Time is the mercy of eternity because literary history extends = to every=20 standard life span a nonstandard duration. For Blake himself, this = duration is not quite six thousand years, but it does go far = beyond his=20 biological dates, far beyond the official dates of English = literary=20 history. The number 1790, for instance=97the year in which he = began writing=20 The Marriage of Heaven and Hell=97is a number stretching = back to=20 biblical antiquity. Blake can say, without fuss and without = fanfare, that=20 "The Prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel dined with me" (MHH plate = 12).=20 These two=97foreign nationals and temporal aliens=97can be seated = at the=20 table, for literary history is not chronologically insular and (if = only=20 for that reason) also not territorially predicated. Blake's = quarrel with=20 Newton thus pits him against three instances of the serial form: = the=20 numerical chronology dictated by dates; the national chronology = imposed by=20 territorial borders; 36 and, finally, the derivational = chronology imposed=20 by a sequential ordering of word and image, of a text and its = translation=20 into a visual medium. These rejections of the serial form come to = a head=20 at the end of Blake's life=97in his illustrations to the Divine = Comedy=97an undertaking that refuses to sequence the relation = between=20 the near and the far, between the domestic and the foreign, even = as it=20 refuses to sequence the relation between the verbal and the = visual,=20 between "original" text and its "subsequent" illustrations.=20

Blake was asked to do these Dante illustrations by John = Linnell, who=20 had [End Page 167] already done much to relieve his poverty = by=20 commissioning a series of illustrations to the Book of Job. The = work on=20 Dante began in the fall of 1824, two or three months before = Blake's=20 sixty-seventh birthday. It ended with his death on August 12, = 1827,=20 leaving behind 102 illustrations, most of them only preliminary = sketches.=20 Blake apparently threw himself into the work. In the course of = just a few=20 weeks he learned enough Italian to read the Divine Comedy = in the=20 original. 37 Visiting him on December 17, 1825, Henry = Crabb=20 Robinson found him preoccupied with Dante, but with Newton also = hovering=20 in the background, his engagement with the latter apparently = renewed by=20 his intense (and intensely critical) engagement with the Divine = Comedy. Robinson recorded these fragments of Blake's = conversation:=20

A few detached thoughts occur to me. = "Bacon,=20 Locke, and Newton are the three great teachers of Atheism, or of = Satan's=20 doctrine." . . .=20

"Dante saw devils where I see none. I see good only." 38

For Blake, Dante and Newton are both intellectual enemies. Both = are=20 voices of Satan: the former, for having put sinners in a punitive = Hell,=20 and the latter, for having put time behind bars. Among Blake's=20 inscriptions to Drawing 101 is the following: "Whatever Book is = for=20 Vengeance for Sin & Whatever Book is Against the Forgiveness = of Sins=20 is not of the Father, but of Satan the Accuser & Father of = Hell."=20 39 It is clear which "Book" he has in mind. = Still,=20 doing illustrations for that book, and bringing the Italian Father = of Hell=20 to nineteenth-century England, Blake has managed to score a point = against=20 Newton and against a nation unified behind Newton. His last = letters=20 alternated between wrestling with Newton and wrestling with Dante. = On=20 April 12, 1827, Blake wrote to George Cumberland: "I know too well = that a=20 great majority of Englishmen are fond of the Indefinite which they = Measure=20 by Newton's Doctrine of the Fluxions of an Atom . . . Certainly a = happy=20 state of Agreement to which I for One do not Agree." 40 On April 25, 1827, he wrote to John = Linnell: "I go=20 on without daring to count on Futurity, which I cannot do without = doubt=20 & Fear that ruins Activity, & are the greatest hurt to an = Artist=20 such as I am. . . . I am too much attach'd to Dante to think much = of=20 anything else." 41=20

Blake dare not count on Futurity. But perhaps he need not. The = presence=20 of a fourteenth-century poet in the nineteenth century makes = "counting"=20 both impossible and ultimately beside the point. Literary history = is, in=20 this sense, both a shelter from serial numbers and a sharp = reminder of=20 [End Page 168] their dominion. The nonbiological clock can = do=20 nothing to halt the ticking of the biological; it can, however, = turn that=20 ticking into an unsequenced continuum. This is, in fact, the story = of the=20 Divine Comedy, its alternate story: not of vengeance = inflicted on=20 sinners but of the fusing of two time frames, one emanating from a = poet=20 long dead, the other emanating from a poet who brings him back to = life. As=20 a poem about Virgil and Dante, the Divine Comedy is = literary=20 history written in defiance of dates, literary history written to=20 deserialize time, much like Blake's Milton. It is this=20 deserialization of time that brings Virgil back, across thirteen = hundred=20 years, his voice weak from long silence. 42 Virgil needs Dante to regain his voice. = Needing=20 Dante, he is always holding him tight, hugging him, as a mother = would her=20 child. In Inferno 23, with the devils in hot pursuit, this = is what=20 Virgil does:=20

Lo duca mio di subito mi prese,=20
come la madre ch'al romore =E8 desta
e vede = presso a s=E8=20 le fiamme accese
che prende il figlio e fugge e non=20 s'arresta,
avendo pi=F9 di lui che di s=E8 cura, =
tanto=20 che solo una cimicia vesta.=20

(23:37=9642)=20 =

Cary's translation:=20

. . . Suddenly my guide
Caught me, = ev'n=20 as a mother that from sleep
Is by the noise arous'd, and = near her=20 sees
The climbing fires, who snatches up her babe
And = flies=20 ne'er pausing, careful more of him
Than of herself, that but = a=20 single vest
Clings round her limbs. 43

Virgil as a "mother" to Dante is clearly interesting to Blake: = this=20 scene from Inferno 23 is one he chooses to illustrate (Figure 2). However, rather than producing a = graphic sequel=20 to Dante's words=97rather than allowing the verbal iconography of = mother and=20 child to dictate a visual analogue=97Blake comes up instead with = an image=20 markedly different, not indebted to Dante's words. This features = Virgil=20 holding Dante, to be sure, but only slightly larger, not as a = mother=20 carrying her child but as two parallel figures, both androgynous, = of=20 unspecified relation to each other, joined only by their rhythmic = [End=20 Page 169] [Begin Page 171] motion. The arms of these = two are=20 entwined; the right leg of each is conspicuously extended, = visually=20 echoing each other, two poets becoming one in flight.=20

Blake's illustrations, as Northrop Frye and W. T. J. Mitchell = have=20 pointed out, are remarkable for their independence from the = texts=20 they supposedly illustrate. 44 What this independence permits is = deserialization=20 on multiple fronts. In the kind of literary history Blake = practices, the=20 fourteenth-century poet enjoys no priority over his = nineteenth-century=20 reader, even though, by chronological dates, one obviously comes = first.=20 The "original" text, for that reason, also enjoys no priority over = its=20 "subsequent" visualization. Blake's images do not reproduce = Dante's words;=20 they are freely imagined, separately crafted entities of their = own. Given=20 this autonomy of the illustrator, the very sequential order of the = Divine Comedy cannot be maintained as a numerical sequence. = The=20 cantos can be retroactively reshuffled, and this is indeed what = Blake has=20 done. The image of mother and child, left out of his illustration = for=20 Inferno 23, is actually projected backward and grafted upon = an=20 earlier canto, Inferno 19. This one features Pope Nicholas = III in a=20 fiery hole, hanging upside down by his feet, with Virgil and Dante = peering=20 at him. Virgil is once again carrying Dante, taking him down to = the hole=20 and then up again, pressing him to his breast. In Dante's text, = however,=20 there is no mention of mother and child:=20

Per=F2 con ambo le braccia mi = prese:=20
e poi che tutto su mi s'ebbe al petto, =
rimont=F2 per la=20 via onde discese.
N=E8 si stanc=F2 d'avermi a s=E8 = distretto,=20
Si men porto sovra 'l colmo dell'arco . . .=20

(19:124=9628)=20 =

Cary's translation:=20

. . . In both arms
He caught, and = to his=20 bosom lifting me,
Upward retrac'd the way of his descent. =
Nor=20 weary of his weight he press'd me close,
Till to the summit = of the=20 rock we came . . . 45

In Dante's Inferno 19, Virgil and Dante seem to be of = relatively=20 the same size. Blake's illustration, on the other hand, dramatizes = their=20 noticeable disparity [End Page 171] [Begin Page 173] = (Figure 3). Virgil is at least three times as big = as Dante,=20 holding him in a bear-hug, cradling him. Only Dante's head and the = upper=20 part of his body are visible to us; the rest of him vanishes, = because what=20 the pictorial composition emphasizes is the powerful arms of = Virgil,=20 thrown around Dante in a complete circle, and the powerful legs of = Virgil,=20 more than enough to support the burden he is carrying. It is = Virgil who is=20 gazing directly, frontally, and fearlessly at Pope Nicholas III. = Dante's=20 face is turned away, pressed against the figure who cradles him, = looking=20 at Nicholas III only timidly, obliquely, out of the corner of his = eyes.=20

And for good reason. Inferno 19 is one of the most = tricky cantos=20 in the Divine Comedy. Dante's feud with the papacy is = burning at a=20 white heat here: not only has he consigned Nicholas III to eternal = damnation, he is using this pope as a mouthpiece to predict the = imminent=20 arrival in hell of two other popes, Boniface VIII and Clement V, = both=20 hated by Dante, and both destined for hell. 46 Incendiary statements of this sort need = a=20 venerable supporting cast. Virgil's larger-than-life presence here = is no=20 accident for Dante, no more than Milton's larger-than-life = presence is for=20 Blake.=20

Taking that figure and transposing it, in a backward loop, from = Inferno 23 to Inferno 19, Blake practices literary = history=20 as he has always done. 47 Here then is nonbiological time at its = most=20 merciful: stretched across nineteen hundred years, not sequenced = in any=20 fixed order, not cowed by chronological dates, not cowed by serial = numbers. This is Blake's response to Newtonian mechanics. Dante, = who knew=20 nothing about Newton, had already done something similar. =

 


Wai Chee Dimock is William Lampson = Professor of=20 American Literature at Yale University. She is the author of = Empire for=20 Liberty: Melville and the Poetics of Individualism (1989); = Residues=20 of Justice: Literature, Law, Philosophy (1996); and coeditor = of two=20 collections of essays, Rethinking Class (1994) and = Literature=20 and Science: Cultural Forms, Conceptual Exchanges, a special = issue of=20 American Literature (December 2002). She is now at work on = two book=20 projects, Literature for the Planet: Global Readers of = Dante and=20 American Literature and Planetary Time.

Notes

Throughout this essay, I have used the following title = abbreviations:=20 Milton (M); Marriage of Heaven and Hell = (MHH);=20 The Song of Los (SL); and Jerusalem = (J).=20

1. Albert Einstein, "Autobiographical Notes," in = Albert=20 Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, ed. Paul Arthur Schilpp (La = Salle,=20 IL: Open Court, 1969), 33.=20

2. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific = Revolutions, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, = 1970).=20

3. Einstein, "Autobiographical Notes," 25.=20

4. E. P. Thompson, Witness against the Beast: = William=20 Blake and the Moral Law (New York: New Press, 1993); Donald D. = Ault,=20 Visionary Physics: Blake's Response to Newton (Chicago: = University=20 of Chicago Press, 1974); Ault, "Incommensurability and = Interconnection in=20 Blake's Anti-Newtonian Text," Studies in Romanticism 16 = (1977):=20 277=96303; Stuart Peterfreund, William Blake in a Newtonian = World=20 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998); Mark Lussier, = Romantic=20 Dynamics: The Poetics of Physicality (New York: [End Page = 173]=20 St. Martin's Press, 2000), 82=96104. For other scholarship on = Blake and=20 Newton over the past sixty years, see Jacob Bronowski, William = Blake=20 and the Age of Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), = 135=9650;=20 Bryce J. Christensen, "The Apple in the Vortex: Newton, Blake, and = Descartes," Philosophy and Literature 6 (1982): 147=9661; = F. B.=20 Curtis, "Blake and the =91Moment of Time': An Eighteenth-Century = Controversy=20 in Mathematics," Philological Quarterly 51 (1972): = 460=9670; Mark=20 Greenberg, "Blake's =91Science,'" Studies in Eighteenth-Century = Culture 12 (1983): 115=9630; Jean H. Hagstrum, "William Blake = Rejects=20 the Enlightenment," in Blake, ed. Northrop Frye (Englewood = Cliffs,=20 NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 142=9655; Marjorie Hope Nicolson, = Newton=20 Demands the Muse: Newton's "Optics" and the Eighteenth Century = Poets=20 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946); Kathleen Raine, = William=20 Blake and Tradition, 2 vols. Bollingen series (Princeton: = Princeton=20 University Press, 1988), 53=9683. For a compelling argument = linking=20 Romanticism to the biology of mind, see Karl Kroeber, = Ecological=20 Literary Criticism: Romantic Imagination and the Biology of = Mind (New=20 York: Columbia University Press, 1994).=20

5. In structuring Romanticism around Blake, I am = mindful of=20 M. H. Abrams's admonition that it is "ultimately misleading to put = Blake=20 and Shelley, instead of Wordsworth and Coleridge, at the = intellectual=20 center of English Romanticism." See his The Mirror and the = Lamp=20 (New York: Norton, 1958), 313. To this, I offer Raymond Williams = as a=20 rejoiner: "Of the slower, wider, less observable changes that we = call the=20 Industrial Revolution, the landmarks are less obvious; but the = lifetime of=20 Blake, 1757=961827, is, in general, the decisive period." See his = Culture=20 and Society, 1780 =961950 (New York: Columbia = University Press,=20 1958), 31.=20

6. For a more fleshed-out theoretical argument, = see my=20 "Non-Newtonian Time," American Literature 74 (December = 2002):=20 911=9631.=20

7. In his argument for "Romantic anachronism," = Jerome=20 Christensen has likewise argued that his "undertaking will involve = a=20 blurring of the distinction between Romantic and Romanticist that = has been=20 pride of the practitioners of ideology critique during the past = fifteen=20 years." See Christensen, Romanticism at the End of History=20 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 1.=20

8. A. Rupert Hall, "Newton and the Absolutes: = Sources," in=20 The Difficulty of Difficult Things, ed. P. M. Harmon and = Alan E.=20 Shapiro (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 261=9685, = quotation=20 from 271.=20

9. Alexandre Koyre, Newtonian Studies = (Chicago:=20 University of Chicago Press, 1965), 10.=20

10. Ibid., 10=9611.=20

11. Hall, "Newton and the Absolutes," 271.=20

12. Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis = Principia=20 Mathematica (1686), translated as Mathematical Principles = of=20 Natural Philosophy, trans. Andrew Motte, 2 vols. (London: = Dawsons,=20 [1729] 1966), 1:9, 12.=20

13. For space in Newton, see Lawrence Sklar, = Space,=20 Time, and Spacetime (Berkeley: University of California Press, = 1977),=20 182=9693. For an emphatic argument about the centrality in Newton = of "an=20 absolutely immobile space, distinct from body, extending from = infinity to=20 infinity," see Robert Rynasiewicz, "By their Properties, Causes, = and=20 Effects: Newton's Scholium on Time, Space, Place, and Motion," = Studies=20 in History and Philosophy of Science 26 (1995): 133=9653; = 295=96321;=20 quotation from 135. [End Page 174]=20

14. Kenneth J. Knoespel, "Milton and the = Hermeneutics of=20 Time: Seventeenth-Century Chronologies and the Science of = History,"=20 Studies in the Literary Imagination 22 (Spring 1989): = 17=9636;=20 quotation from 30.=20

15. Albert Einstein, Relativity: The Special = and the=20 General Theory, trans. Robert W. Lawson (New York: Crown, = 1961), 26.=20

16. Ibid., 30.=20

17. Ibid.=20

18. Ibid., 31.=20

19. For a useful account of Einstein and = non-Euclidean=20 geometry, see Rudolf Carnap, An Introduction to the Philosophy = of=20 Science, ed. Martin Gardner (New York: Dover, 1995), 132=9676. =

20. Einstein's commitment to mathematical = formalization is=20 unwavering through his life. See, for instance, Abraham Pais, = "Subtle=20 Is the Lord": The Science and Life of Albert Einstein (New = York:=20 Oxford University Press, 1982), 111=96291.=20

21. I am thinking of the influential work of = Benedict=20 Anderson, which equates literature with serial publications such = as the=20 newspaper, subsuming literary time under a regime of = "simultaneity,"=20 "measured by clock and calendar." See Anderson, Imagined = Community:=20 Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: = Verso,=20 1983), 30.=20

22. Unless otherwise indicated, all citations = are to=20 The Poetry and Prose of William Blake, ed. David V. Erdman = (Garden=20 City: Doubleday, 1970). The plate number is followed by the = numbers of the=20 lines cited.=20

23. Raine is speaking generally of symbols in = Blake. See=20 her Blake and Tradition, 2:47.=20

24. As Robert N. Essick and Joseph Viscomi point = out,=20 Blake seems to be suggesting, from the outset, that "his purpose = in=20 Milton is the same as Milton's in Paradise Lost, but = perhaps=20 with the implication that his attempt is necessitated by the = failure of=20 the first." See William Blake, Milton a Poem, and the Final = Illuminated=20 Works, ed. Robert N. Essick and Joseph Viscomi (Princeton: = William=20 Blake Trust and Princeton University Press, 1993), 111.=20

25. Robert Essick, William Blake, = Printmaker=20 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Joseph Viscomi, = Blake=20 and the Idea of the Book (Princeton: Princeton University = Press,=20 1993). For the aesthetics of Blake's calligraphic scripts, see W. = J. T.=20 Mitchell, "Visible Language," in Romanticism and Contemporary=20 Criticism, ed. Morris Eaves and Michael Fischer (Ithaca: = Cornell=20 University Press, 1980), 46=9686; Susan Wolfson, Formal = Charges: The=20 Shaping of Poetry in British Romanticism (Stanford: Stanford=20 University Press, 1997), 31=9646.=20

26. Newton, Mathematical Principles, = 2:389.=20

27. E. P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and = Industrial=20 Capitalism," Past and Present 38 (December 1967): 56=9697.=20

28. What Blake says about Chaucer's Miller is = pertinent=20 here: "The Miller, a terrible fellow, such as exists in all times = and=20 places, for the trial of men, to astonish every neighborhood, with = brutal=20 strength and courage, to get rich and powerful to curb the pride = of Man."=20 See his "Descriptive Catalogue," in Erdman, Poetry and Prose of = William=20 Blake, 527.=20

29. For a detailed discussion of industrial = capitalism and=20 Blake's "Satanic Wheels," see Bronowski, William Blake and the = Age of=20 Revolution, 87=96131.=20

30. Raine, Blake and Tradition, 2:56. = [End Page=20 175]=20

31. Harold Bloom, Blake's Apocalypse: A Study = in Poetic=20 Argument (London: Victor Gollancz, 1963), 329.=20

32. For a discussion of reading as a = nonvolitional=20 generator for hybridity, see my "Literature for the Planet," = PMLA=20 116 (January 2001): 173=9688.=20

33. Knoespel, "Milton and the Hermeneutics of = Time," 18.=20

34. Northrop Frye argues that Milton's descent = to earth=20 "will do two things for him: it will enable him to see the = physical world=20 as Satanic rather than divine, and it will enable him as a result = to see=20 his =91emanation,' or totality of things he loves, as part of = himself and=20 not as a remote and objective "female will." The former is the = climax of=20 the first book of Milton; the latter is the climax of the = second."=20 See Frye, Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake = (Princeton:=20 Princeton University Press, 1947), 336.=20

35. See Martin Heidegger, "Building Dwelling = Thinking," in=20 his Poetry, Language, Thought, trans. Albert Hofstadter = (New York:=20 Harper Colophon Books, 1971), 143=9662. For Blake's architectural = images,=20 see Robert Essick, William Blake and the Language of Adam = (Oxford:=20 Clarendon Press, 1989), 11=9612.=20

36. For Blake's weaving of the French Revolution = into=20 English political history, see David. V. Erdman, Blake: Prophet = against=20 Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969). = Qualifying=20 Erdman (but still supporting my argument about Blake's = interweaving of two=20 national chronologies), W. J. T. Mitchell argues that Urizen might = be seen=20 not as an English reactionary reacting against the French = Revolution but=20 as a composite parody of the French philosophes themselves. See = Mitchell,=20 "Visible Language," 50=9659.=20

37. Henry Crabb Robinson noted that Blake used = Henry=20 Francis Cary's translation. See Diary, Reminiscences, and=20 Correspondence of Henry Crabb Robinson, ed. Thomas Sadler, 2 = vols.=20 (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1870), 2:28. Frederick Tatham mentioned = that=20 Blake learned Italian in the course of a few weeks and was able to = read=20 the Divine Comedy in the original. This would have been = Dante=20 con l'espositione di Christoforo Landino et di Alessandro = Vellutello,=20 Sopra la sua Comedia dell'Inferno, del Purgatorio, & del = Paradiso=20 (Venice: Appresso Giovambattista, Marchio Sessa & Fratelli, = 1564). See=20 Albert S. Roe, Blake's Illustrations to the "Divine Comedy" = (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), 4 n. 5.=20

38. Robinson, Reminiscences, 2:27.=20

39. Drawing 101 is in Roe, Blake's = Illustrations to the=20 "Divine Comedy." The inscription is fairly hard to read. I = quote from=20 ibid., 31.=20

40. William Blake to George Cumberland, April = 12, 1827, in=20 The Letters of William Blake, ed. Geoffrey Keynes = (Cambridge:=20 Harvard University Press, 1968), 162.=20

41. William Blake to John Linnell, April 25, = 1827,=20 Letters, 163=9664.=20

42. Inferno, 1:63, "chi per lungo = silenzio parea=20 fioco."=20

43. Henry Francis Cary, The Vision of Hell, = Purgatory,=20 and Paradise, of Dante Alighieri (London: Taylor and Hessy, = 1819),=20 198.=20

44. Northrop Frye, "Poetry and Design in William = Blake,"=20 Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 10 (September = 1951): 35=9642;=20 W. J. T. Mitchell, Blake's Composite Art (Princeton: = Princeton=20 University Press, 1978), 14=9634. Mitchell largely disagrees with = Jean H.=20 Hagstrum, who sees Blake as operating within the tradition of = Ur=20 Pictura Poesis. See Hagstrum, "Blake and the Sister-Arts = Tradition,"=20 in Blake's Visionary Form Dramatic, ed. David V. Erdman and = John E.=20 Grant (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 82=9687. = [End Page=20 176] For a discussion of the Dante illustrations, see Ralph = Pite,=20 The Circle of Our Vision: Dante's Presence in English Romantic=20 Poetry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 58=9667.=20

45. Cary, Vision of Hell, 169.=20

46. As John D. Sinclair points out, Nicholas III = (1277=961280), Boniface VIII (1280=961303), and Clement V = (1303=961314)=20 represented "a crescendo of iniquity" for Dante: "Nicholas, = reputed the=20 first of the papal simonists and a great one, through Boniface, = the=20 protagonist in his age of the most inordinate pretensions of the = Church to=20 political predominance, a worldly, unscrupulous and powerful = ecclesiastic,=20 and incidentally the corrupter of public life in Florence and the = cause of=20 Dante's exile, to Clement, treacherous, lecherous, and servile to = France,=20 the leader of the Church into its seventy years of shameful = =91exile' in=20 Avignon." See "Note," in Dante's Inferno: Italian Text with = English=20 Translation and Comment by John D. Sinclair (New York: Oxford=20 University Press, 1972), 244. Nicholas mistakenly thinks that = Boniface has=20 already arrived in hell: "Ed el grido: =91Se' tu gi=E1 = cost=EC=20 ritto, / se' tu gi=E1 cost=EC ritto, Bonifazio? . . .'" = (19.52=9653),=20 and predicts the arrival of Clement after him: "che dopo lui = verra di=20 pi=F9 laida opra/ di ver ponente un pastor sanza legge" = (19:82=9683).=20

47. For Blake, reversibility is crucial to all = levels of=20 literature. As Joseph Viscomi points out, "We know that Blake = changed his=20 mind about Milton, adding plates and changing the plate = order of=20 copy C. . . that copy C was altered three times, that its final = plate=20 order was probably influenced by copy D rather than vice versa." = See=20 Viscomi, Blake and the Idea of the Book, 324.=20

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