Steven Botterill

From: Subject: Steven Botterill - Dante's Poetics of the Sacred Word - Philosophy and Literature 20:1 Date: Mon, 3 May 2004 20:35:30 -0700 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_00BD_01C4314E.2CEDF960"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2800.1409 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_00BD_01C4314E.2CEDF960 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://0-muse.jhu.edu.opac.sfsu.edu/journals/philosophy_and_literature/v020/20.1botterill.html Steven Botterill - Dante's Poetics of the Sacred Word = - Philosophy and Literature 20:1

Copyright =A9 1996 The Johns Hopkins = University Press.=20 All rights reserved.

Philosophy and=20 Literature 20.1 (1996) 154-162

Dante's Poetics Of The Sacred Word =

Proceedings=20 of the ALSC: II.=20 Dante and the Western Canon

I hope to make a case that, until recently, would probably have = seemed=20 self-evident, or at least uncontroversial: namely, that a positive = valuation of the power of human language to express and to = represent=20 informs the textual practice of Dante's Commedia--or, to put it = more=20 bluntly, that Dante believes in words.¹

The language of poetry was, for Dante, the supremely demanding = and=20 supremely rewarding form of human eloquence. This much is made = clear in=20 his significantly titled treatise De vulgari eloquentia = (On=20 Eloquence in the Vernacular), which, having set out--and = failed--to=20 identify a truly noble form of the Italian vernacular, takes it as = axiomatic that if (or rather when) such a language is brought into = being,=20 it will primarily be used by poets in the composition of their = poetry.=20 Despite the many subsequent developments in his thought, and = despite,=20 above all, the drastic and often underestimated effects of his = shift after=20 1300 from lyric to narrative-dramatic forms and techniques, = nothing in=20 Dante's later works gives us any reason to think that he ever = modified=20 this view.

Within the narrative of the Commedia, the overriding = importance=20 of eloquence is amply demonstrated by the fact that, without it,=20 Dante-character's journey would never have taken place. It is to = poetic=20 eloquence that Dante owes both his visionary experience and his = eventual=20 salvation. Confirmation of this initially startling proposition = occurs in=20 canto II of Inferno, where Virgil describes his commission = from=20 Beatrice to come to the aid of her errant admirer, and explains = that he is=20 charged to do so through the use of his "parola ornata" = ("ornamented=20 [End Page 154] word": Inf., II. 67)--not merely a = word=20 plucked from the dictionary, however potently charged with = salvific=20 meaning, but a word (or, by synecdoche, a language) that is = perceptibly=20 embellished with the technical and rhetorical devices recognized = by its=20 hearers as constituting eloquence. Virgil, then, is not just to = speak the=20 saving word but to pay attention, as both his historical identity = and his=20 creator's agenda require, to the aesthetic and intellectual = implications=20 of its usage; and the efficacy of his speech is manifestly = dependent on=20 the elegance and persuasiveness of its formulation.

Dante-character's initial recognition of his mysterious = interlocutor in=20 Inferno I as "quella fonte / che spandi di parlar s=EC = largo fiume"=20 ("that spring / that pours forth so rich a stream of speech": = Inf.,=20 I. 79-80) is thus retrospectively justified: this is the = immediately=20 relevant aspect of Virgil's historical personality, the one that = best=20 equips him to become Dante-character's guide and mentor in Hell = and (most=20 of) Purgatory. Likewise, it is under the auspices of another = renowned=20 possessor of eloquence, Bernard of Clairvaux, that Dante's journey = reaches=20 its appointed end. The narrative movement through the = Commedia is,=20 among much else, a movement from one "parola ornata" to another, = from=20 Virgil's eloquence to Bernard's, from the pagan word that offers = worldly=20 renown to the Christian word that both transfigures the believer = in this=20 life and promises bliss in the life to come. The former, however, = grounds=20 the process that leads to the latter; and at both ends of the = journey the=20 functional significance of the word and its usage remains = paramount.

We need, however, to be careful at this point, lest we begin = too=20 quickly to entertain the notion that the centrality of eloquence = in=20 Dante's thought immediately justifies the conclusion that he = accepted the=20 intrinsic validity of poetic language, or, more controversial = still, its=20 supremacy over other forms of eloquent discourse. Firstly, = Virgil's is not=20 the only word in the poem distinguished as "ornata." The epithet = recurs in=20 the bolgia of the seducers, as part of the tale of Jason, = who "con=20 segni e con parole ornate" ("with signs and with ornamented = words":=20 Inf., XVIII. 91) led Hypsipyle astray and earned himself = damnation.=20 Clearly, Jason's "parole ornate" are morally quite different from=20 Virgil's: instead of saving they betray, instead of embodying the = truth=20 they act as a vehicle of deceit. Their ornamental quality is = specious,=20 employed to conceal their speaker's malicious and self-seeking = intent;=20 eloquence here has become the means of bringing about another's = harm. The=20 situation is, in fact, the exact reverse of that in which Virgil's = "parola=20 [End Page 155] ornata" comes to Dante's rescue; and so we = have good=20 grounds for hesitating before deciding that "ornata" is = necessarily a term=20 of praise, or that eloquence itself, in Dante's scheme, is = necessarily a=20 positive value.

Even in Virgil's case, moreover, eloquence does not operate = constantly=20 and reliably to govern his use of words: it has limits. The = earliest=20 decisive proof of this comes in the dramatic episode of the two = travelers'=20 physical and mental bafflement when confronted with the hostility = of the=20 devils who inhabit the city of Dis (Inf., VIII. 67-IX. = 105). Faced=20 with their refusal to admit him and Dante to the infernal = fortress--which=20 takes the unmistakably concrete form of having its gates slammed = in his=20 face--Virgil painfully and paradoxically finds himself paralyzed = in both=20 intellect and language. He knows neither what to do nor, more=20 significantly, what to say; and, as he attempts to resolve the = situation=20 by speaking to Dante, he embarks on the verbal formulation of an = idea,=20 finds it inappropriate, and breaks off his sentence abruptly, only = to=20 begin again on an entirely different tack:=20

'Pur a noi converr=E0 vincer la punga,'=20
cominci=F2 el, 'se non . . . Tal ne s'offerse.=20
Oh quanto tarda a me ch'altri qui giunga!' =

'We have to win this battle,' he began,=20
'if not . . . But one so great had offered help. =
How slow that someone's coming seems to me!' =

(Inf., IX. 7-9)=20

This verbal clumsiness is more than inelegant; it is = inefficacious. In=20 his inability to live up to the exacting standards of linguistic = usage,=20 Virgil is also fatally unsuccessful in his immediate aim, which is = to=20 reassure his timid prot=E9g=E9 that all will still be well; and = because his=20 maladroit use of language has failed to convey a precise = meaning--has=20 failed, that is, to be effective, let alone = eloquent--Dante-character ends=20 up needlessly fearing the worst:

I' vidi ben s=EC com' ei ricoperse=20
  lo cominciar con l'altro che poi venne,=20
  che fur parole a le prime diverse;
ma = nondimen paura=20 il suo dir dienne,
  perch' io traeva la parola = tronca=20
  forse a peggior sentenzia che non tenne. [End = Page=20 156]

But I saw well enough how he had covered =
  his first words with the words that followed = after--=20
  so different from what he had said before;=20
nevertheless, his speech made me afraid,
   = because I=20 drew out from his broken phrase
   a meaning=20 worse--perhaps--than he'd intended.

(Inf., IX. 10-15)²

Virgil's momentary loss of eloquence, issuing in a "parola = tronca" that=20 neutralizes his "parola ornata," has consequences that bring him = and Dante=20 to the brink of disaster, enmeshing them in a net of mental and = verbal=20 impotence whose moral gravity is figured immediately thereafter in = the=20 threatening appearance of Medusa, and from which they can only be = released=20 by the direct intervention of divine authority in the shape of an = angelic=20 messenger. And it is highly pertinent to our theme that, when = divine=20 authority expresses itself directly through this "messo da ciel," = subduing=20 the devils and gaining for the travelers entry into Dis, it does = so by=20 means of what are specifically designated as "parole sante" ("holy = words":=20 Inf., IX. 105). So Virgil's "parola ornata" cannot, it = seems,=20 always be relied on to guide or protect Dante; it carries within = itself=20 the capacity to fail, to become "tronca." Language in the mouth of = a=20 pagan, even the language of a poet like Virgil, cannot fulfill the = conditions under which alone it can take on the authority of ideal = eloquence, because it does not rest on a foundation of divinely = guaranteed=20 meaning.

The Commedia's thematic development, as a result, will = find the=20 poem undertaking a quest for an infallible "parola," a word in = which the=20 believer can repose complete confidence that it will hold meaning, = express=20 truth, and possess protective power; and I would argue that this = word is=20 found above all in the discourse of Bernard of Clairvaux in=20 Paradiso XXXI-XXXIII--which, like that of the "messo da = ciel" but=20 like no other body of speech in the Commedia, is explicitly = designated as consisting of "parole sante" (Par., XXXII. = 3).

The adjective "holy" must, indeed, be seen as indispensable to = the=20 definition of the Commedia's ideal of eloquence; and in the = end to=20 Dante's conception of poetic language and its authority. As we saw = with=20 Jason, the moral validity of eloquence is not, in Dante's = thinking, a=20 given; it is affected by a speaker's intentions and, in the = bluntly=20 narrative terms of the poem's fiction, by that speaker's location = in the=20 [End Page 157] realms of the afterlife. The word uttered by = the=20 denizens of Hell may be "ornata"--at times to a dazzling = degree--but it=20 cannot be holy, and it may not, quite simply, be true. This = defect,=20 perceptible even in the speech of a Virgil, debars infernal = eloquence from=20 attaining the status--or authority--of its purgatorial or = paradisiacal=20 equivalent. In the Commedia, true eloquence is the = eloquence of the=20 true; and a truly authoritative poetic language is one that deals=20 exclusively in truth.

Inferno is rich in instances of eloquent speakers whose = verbal=20 dexterity is soon revealed as the tangible realization of their = moral and=20 intellectual failings: the honeyed self-justification of Francesca = da=20 Rimini (canto V), the intricate but sterile wordplay of Pier della = Vigna=20 (canto XIII), the lofty yet vapid rhetoric of Brunetto Latini = (canto XV),=20 or, most pointed of all, the scathingly ironic image of Ulysses = (canto=20 XXVI), first quoting his own inspiring exhortation to his crew, = and then,=20 with odious self-satisfaction and false modesty, congratulating = himself on=20 the efficacy of his "orazion picciola," the "little speech" = (Inf.,=20 XXVI. 122) that persuaded them to their doom. In their double=20 context--original delivery and subsequent narration--Ulysses' = words can be=20 seen as cruelly deceptive, the product of an eloquence turned = against=20 itself. Ulysses' "orazion" is the reverse of "santa"; his = eloquence serves=20 falsehood, not truth. What preoccupies Dante, and what becomes the = object=20 of the Commedia's linguistic quest, is, instead, an = eloquence that=20 shall be both efficacious and true, and thus be fully in accord = with the=20 prescriptions of the God who is himself the Word. Mere ability to=20 manipulate words in pleasing and meaningful patterns--"parola=20 ornata"--will not suffice, because although the speaker of such = words may=20 be a Virgil, he may also be a Jason or a Ulysses. Rather, = eloquence must=20 be governed by divine authority and sanctioned by divine = precedent; it=20 must become sacred. This is the ideal of eloquence to which the = poem=20 aspires: the "orazion picciola" of Inferno XXVI must become = the=20 "santa orazione" of Paradiso XXXII, Ulysses' eloquent = falsity must=20 be redeemed into Bernard's eloquent veracity. Then and then alone = will it=20 be possible to speak the word that is both "ornata" and "santa," = both=20 eloquent and true--the word that saves.

The evaluation of eloquence in the Commedia thus = requires close=20 attention to the identity, situation, and presumed intentions of = the=20 speaker in the text; and, in consequence, it seems logical enough = to look=20 for exemplars of sacred eloquence in Paradiso, where every = speaker=20 ostensibly deals in truth, and where words are placed visibly, = directly,=20 and necessarily at the service of Dante's God. But so far I have = dealt=20 with matters internal to the poem, with images of eloquence = [End Page=20 158] rather than its reality, and with a poetic language = mediated=20 through narrative and dramatization rather than making claims to = authority=20 in its own, or its author's, voice. The idea of any fictional = character as=20 being in some sense an "exemplar" of eloquence, which brings with = it the=20 notion that eloquence is to be practiced or imitated outside the = immediate=20 context of the Commedia--presumably by its readers in their = own=20 dealings in words--must raise the question of how far the = standards of=20 verbal usage apparently propounded in the poem are attributable to = Dante=20 himself as poet; that is, how far the eloquence of the = characters=20 in the Commedia is not only the product of, but also a = commentary=20 on, the eloquence of Dante poeta. Does Dante, in a word, = believe=20 that its linguistic virtuosity and purity of moral intention = entitle his=20 poem to authority; or does he accept that all forms of eloquence, = even the=20 language of poetry, are ultimately prevented, by their own = inherent=20 inadequacy, from attaining the consistency of reference or = sufficiency of=20 meaning on which such authority, to be genuine, must presumably = rest? Do=20 his sympathies--as poet, not as moralist or as Christian--lie with = Ulysses=20 or with Bernard?

Several recent readings of the Commedia have opted for = Ulysses;=20 their authors have found in Dante a soulmate and precursor in the=20 skepticism about poetic language characteristic of contemporary = literary=20 theory and our self-consciously modern (or rather postmodern) = cultural=20 climate.³ For all Dante's apparent respect for = eloquence, and=20 for all the vigor with which the Commedia seems both to = propose and=20 to embody the authority of poetic language, such readers find it=20 impossible to accept that Dante can have believed in his own = poem's=20 (implied or declared) aspirations. The Commedia's repeated = and=20 insistent claims to be telling the truth are, in this view, = inevitably=20 undermined by its own status as fiction--which is to say, as a = lie. From=20 here it is but a step to the suggestion that Dante poeta is = not=20 only aware of, but positively rejoices in, this inescapable = contradiction;=20 and, in consequence, that the poem's real destination is not truth = but=20 falsehood, not coherence but chaos, not speech but silence.

By this criterion, the Commedia's manifest richness and = vivacity=20 of linguistic effect are a sign not of its author's success as a = poet and=20 belief in his own poetic art, but of the reverse, since, even with = his=20 linguistic resources stretched to the utmost (as they both are and = are=20 proclaimed to be in Paradiso), Dante the poet, as his own = text=20 admits, still cannot achieve a fully realized representation of = what=20 purports to be the matter of his poem.

Prominent among the evidence adduced in support of this daring = [End=20 Page 159] hypothesis is the series of narratorial = interventions and=20 exclamations in Paradiso that proclaims, quite overtly, the = incompetence of Dante's (or any human) language to convey the = reality of=20 what it is seeking to describe. This collection of passages, often = seen as=20 constituting the Commedia's "ineffability topos," is = extensive and consistent enough to have been recognized as an = important=20 body of metapoetical reflection in Dante's work; and its = existence,=20 manifest from the very moment of Dante-character's entrance into=20 Paradise--which experience is itself immediately described as=20 indescribable (Par., I. 70-72)--does seem to take an axe to = the=20 roots of Dante's project, since it offers a nagging reminder to = readers=20 that what they are encountering is a verbally constructed image = pretending=20 to be a reality but necessarily failing in the attempt. Yet the = attempt is=20 made, and made successfully, in the teeth of its own ultimate=20 impossibility and Dante-poet's awareness of that impossibility; in = the=20 end, and against agonizingly heavy odds, Paradiso is = written.

This is the crux of the matter: that the authority of poetic = language=20 is not absolute does not mean that it does not exist; that the = last word=20 can never be spoken (in this world) does not mean that the word = that=20 is spoken here cannot justify its claim to enjoy authority. = It is=20 surely more in keeping with all that we can deduce from Dante's = writings=20 to interpret the very existence of Paradiso as an = assertion, even a=20 celebration, of language's innate power--its potential to = undertake an=20 expressive enterprise that will remain valid even within its = (God-given)=20 limitations, as it represents to a human audience an experience of = the=20 divine--than it is to see Paradiso, and the Commedia = as a=20 whole, as a text forever gloomily harping on its own = representational=20 inadequacy.

Dante the poet is Ulysses' spiritual kinsman in the audacity of = his=20 (poetic) voyage; but the relationship ends when it comes to = observing the=20 conditions laid down for that voyage by a higher power. = Linguistically,=20 the poet travels as far as he can, sailing unknown waters and = exulting in=20 the experience; but he knows that his travels must come to an end, = and an=20 end that falls short of what he, as poet and indeed as believer, = might=20 desire. The attempt becomes its own justification; the linguistic = journey=20 itself, not its preordained failure to bring poet and poem to = their=20 destination, is what counts.

The critical absolutism of the demand that Dante's poetic = language=20 fully embody the experience that it sets out to describe, the = denial to it=20 of any validity on the basis of its inevitable failure, and, above = all,=20 the attribution to Dante himself of the same nerveless skepticism = that=20 [End Page 160] informs late twentieth-century readings of = this=20 kind, are all the fruit of a theologically deracinated criticism = that has=20 lost touch with the conception of humanity--and thus of = language--as=20 essentially fallen. Absolutist readers implicitly require = of Dante=20 that he consciously attempt to write not about God, or even like = God, but=20 as God--which is, of course, a demand to which no Christian = author=20 could meaningfully respond. Human use of words must always fall = short of=20 perfection, since every other aspect of human existence does so, = and has=20 done since Adam and Eve's disobedience "brought death into the = world, and=20 all our woe"; but it is both anachronistic and profoundly contrary = to the=20 spirit of both Dante's theological beliefs and his linguistic = theory (in=20 so far, at least, as those can be deduced from his writings) to = suggest=20 that, for him, human language's failure to attain perfection = instantly=20 consigns it to the category of perfection's polar opposite. Words = cannot=20 do everything; but they can do much, and, in the mouth of a = skilled and=20 morally pristine speaker--a fictive Bernard of Clairvaux, perhaps, = or even=20 a historical Dante Alighieri--they can come infinitesimally close = to the=20 plenitude of meaning, beauty, and referential power that, in the = last=20 analysis, is reserved for the Word that is God.

And the tension that subtends the entire third cantica, = between=20 the desire to probe language's boundaries and the knowledge that = those=20 boundaries are both immutably established and, as yet, = incompletely=20 explored, is, finally, creative. The exhilaration generated by = Dante's=20 pushing poetic language to its limits is not diluted by--in fact, = it=20 depends on--the acknowledgment of those limits' existence. If=20 Paradiso abounds in avowals of ineffability, it abounds = also in=20 neologisms: new words, that is, created to express the (formerly)=20 inexpressible, and thus to redraw the boundaries of language, = giving=20 tangible proof that ineffability can be counteracted or even = diminished.=20 This willingness to add to the stock of poetic language, to devise = and=20 establish ways of saying what previously could not have been said, = is a=20 further sign of Dante's belief in the possibilities of linguistic=20 expression and in the authority of his own poetic enterprise. = Every time=20 Dante poeta coins a neologism, he wins, and celebrates, a = victory=20 over silence and meaninglessness, a victory that would not have = been=20 possible if the Commedia's linguistic exuberance did indeed = conceal, as some modern readers would have it, its author's = cynicism, even=20 despair, about the nature of the task he has undertaken. The = poetic=20 language of Paradiso, taken as a whole, is exultant rather = than=20 diffident about its own claims to mean, to refer, and to express; = and it=20 founds those claims on a self-confident [End Page 161] = estimation=20 of its own authority that derives directly from its author's = literary=20 practice and theological beliefs. When the Christian poet speaks = in the=20 name of God, drawing to the full on all the resources with which = his=20 fallen human language is endowed, the result is the creation of a = truly=20 sacred eloquence, charged to the highest possible degree with = expressive,=20 truth-bearing power, that functions not only as a defining = characteristic=20 of certain individuals within the fiction of the Commedia, = but as=20 an exemplary principle for both poet and reader in the life of the = world.=20

University of California, = Berkeley

Notes

1. I am condensing arguments presented in more = elaborate=20 form in the final chapter of my book Dante and the Mystical = Tradition:=20 Bernard of Clairvaux in the "Commedia" (Cambridge: Cambridge=20 University Press, 1994), to which the reader is referred for = fuller=20 documentation.

2. Dante's text is quoted, here and throughout, = according=20 to the edition by Giorgio Petrocchi, La "Commedia" secondo = l'antica=20 vulgata (Milan: Mondadori, 1966-67); the translation used here = is that=20 of Allen Mandelbaum, The "Divine Comedy" of Dante Alighieri:=20 "Inferno" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).=20 Translations of individual phrases elsewhere in the paper are my = own.

3. Two especially pertinent instances of this = tendency are=20 Jeremy Tambling, Dante and Difference: Writing in the = "Commedia"=20 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and Giuliana = Carugati,=20 Dalla menzogna al silenzio: La scrittura mistica della = "Commedia" di=20 Dante (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1991).=20

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