From: Subject: Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle - Closure in Paradise: Dante Outsings Aquinas - MLN 115:1 Date: Mon, 3 May 2004 20:35:01 -0700 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_00A8_01C4314E.1C01D9F0"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2800.1409 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_00A8_01C4314E.1C01D9F0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://0-muse.jhu.edu.opac.sfsu.edu/journals/mln/v115/115.1boyle.html Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle - Closure in Paradise: Dante = Outsings Aquinas - MLN 115:1
Copyright =A9 2000 The Johns Hopkins = University Press.=20 All rights reserved.

MLN 115.1 = (2000) 1-12=20
 
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Closure in Paradise:
Dante = Outsings=20 Aquinas

Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle =

The architectonic model of Dante's = Commedia as a=20 Gothic cathedral 1 is rivaled by Aquinas's Summa = theologiae, as=20 if the works were the twin spires of medievalism. Yet it cannot be = that=20 "Dante's cosmic poem is such a summa too" 2 because Aquinas's Summa was never = summed. The=20 exemplarity of the medieval mind as systematic falters on = Aquinas's=20 failure to complete his project. He abruptly ceased writing and = dictating=20 his masterpiece in part three at question ninety, on penance. When = pressed=20 by his confessor to explain his indolence, he replied, "I cannot, = because=20 everything I have written seems to me chaffy, in respect to those = things=20 that I have seen and have been revealed to me." 3 Aquinas's silence was not respected. = Unfinished=20 works, even fragments, were a bane of medieval literature. 4 Dominican editors covered his shame by = completing=20 the Summa theologiae [End Page 1] posthumously with = a=20 scissors-and-paste job from his Summa contra gentiles. = Apocryphal=20 stories were invented about Aquinas's miraculous recovery from=20 ineffability: how he dictated to the monks at Fossa Nova from his = deathbed=20 a commentary on the Song of Songs. 5 A century ago the abbot of Montecassino = claimed an=20 astounding discovery in the margins of an archival manuscript: a = final=20 work by Aquinas, a monograph letter to his predecessor on future=20 contingents. 6 Modern biographers and scholars still = resolutely=20 mistranslate his judgment of "chaffy" as "strawy," ruining his = meaning by=20 converting bad to good. 7 But Aquinas knew the difference: the chaff = was the=20 useless husks separated during threshing from the straw, the = useful stalk=20 or stem of cereal grains. As he explained, chaff was stuff fit for = burning=20 only, like sinners in hell. 8=20

Dante assessed Aquinas's repudiation of his = work with=20 utter sobriety. Since he himself had experienced incompletion with = his=20 Convivio, 9 the accomplishment of his Commedia = was an=20 imperative. Just as Aquinas's decision not to write had been = prompted by a=20 vision, so was Dante's inspiration to write. The "mirabile = visione" that=20 had suspended La vita nuova would be resumed as the=20 Commedia. 10 In its final canto the pilgrim = penetrates the=20 eternal light to a vision of its source. "Nel suo profondo vidi = che=20 s'interna / legato con amore in un volume, / ci=F2 che per = l'universo si=20 squaderna . . . (In its depth I saw ingathered, bound by love in a = single=20 volume, that which is dispersed [End Page 2] in leaves = throughout=20 the universe . . .)." 11 The completion of his Commedia, = the=20 publication of which Dante experienced serially, required a = hermeneutical=20 act. He invested the final step in the process of bookmaking, its = binding,=20 with a significance privileged to authors who supervised the = production of=20 their own copies. Its sequential meaning was ordered by its = simultaneous=20 meaning, so that without this final canto to bind the book its = action=20 could not be comprehended as completed in God. 12=20

Aquinas, whose Summa theologiae was also = published=20 in fascicules, did not achieve with his own part three the binding = of the=20 book. Yet the critical consensus has supposed that his role in = Dante's=20 cantica three is simply to lecture the pilgrim on the necessary=20 intellectual procedure toward beatitude. Aquinas's allusions in=20 Paradiso to the shipwreck of Ulysses and the faltering of = Daedalus=20 are thus intended as warnings against rash pride in venturing into = unknown=20 areas. 13 These very positive assessments of = Aquinas's=20 character miss the fact that he speaks about failure from personal = experience. Dante confers upon Aquinas posthumously and = fictionally the=20 voice that failed him in life and reality. His speech begins = emphatically=20 and self-consciously by announcing itself, as Aquinas "ruppe il = silenzio .=20 . . e disse (broke the silence . . . and said)." It commences=20 significantly with the metaphor of threshing straw to garner its = grain.=20 "Quando l'una paglia =E8 trita, / quando la sua semenza =E8 gi=E0 = riposta, / a=20 batter l'altra dolce amor m'invita. (Since one straw is threshed, = since=20 its grain is now garnered, [End Page 3] sweet charity bids = me beat=20 out the other)." This alludes ironically to his confession that = his entire=20 opus winnowed only chaff. It is Dante's poetic art that confers = upon him a=20 speech that threshes straw and garners its grain and impels him to = continue the task. The same metaphor of threshing is the = paradisiacal=20 vision of Dante's pilgrim about labor on earth. When at Beatrice's = bidding=20 he gazes down at the world he has already surpassed, "l'aiuola che = ci fa=20 tanto feroci, / volgendom' io . . . (the little threshing-floor = which=20 makes us so fierce was all revealed to me . . .)." Again in = retrospection=20 he sees "il sito / di questa aiuola (more of the space of this = little=20 threshing-floor)." Aquinas's speech continues its metaphor of = harvest by=20 warning against being "troppo sicure / a giudicar, s=EC come quei = che stima=20 / le biade in campo pria che sien mature (too secure in judgment, = like one=20 who should count the ears in the field before they are ripe)." = 14=20

Dante thus imposes upon Aquinas an important=20 acknowledgment of his personal and professional failure to achieve = the=20 completion of his book. He persists in giving him this voice of=20 experience, varying the agricultural metaphor that had defined = Adam's=20 labor (Gen. 3:17-19) with the navigational metaphor of literary = invention.=20 "Vie pi=F9 che 'ndarno da riva si parte, / perch=E9 non torna tal = qual e' si=20 move, / chi pesca per lo vero e non ha l'arte. (Far worse than in = vain=20 does he leave the shore [since he returns not as he puts forth] = who fishes=20 for the truth and has not the art)." 15 In counseling against complacency in = judgment,=20 Aquinas observes "e legno vidi gi=E0 dritto e veloce / correr lo = mar per=20 tutto suo camino, / perire al fine a l'intrar de la foce. (And I = have seen=20 ere now a ship fare straight and swift over the sea through all = her=20 course, and perish at the last as she entered the harbor)." = 16 Such a luckless fisher and drowned = navigator, in=20 the authorial commonplace, 17 was Aquinas.=20

Dante has Aquinas argue as supreme the = practical wisdom=20 of Solomon, who petitioned for prudence in government--not the = abstract=20 knowledge of logic, physics, and geometry that defined his own=20 scholasticism. 18 Through the analytical procedure of = arguing=20 Solomon's wisdom as superior, his speech reveals the necessary but = [End=20 Page 4] limited role of reason and its scientific discourse. = In its=20 finality Aquinas's argument impels him to the unified source of = all=20 wisdom, in which analysis is impossible, and to the chastened = recognition=20 of the impossibility of human judgment in divine matters. = Dialectic as the=20 art of securing truth is qualified because its analysis and = argumentation=20 pertain to human wisdom, which is imperfect. It is appropriate = only for=20 questions rationally tractable. Although philosophy and poetry = both=20 originate in wonder, Dante exposes the limits of philosophy, which = must=20 yield to poetry in evoking a wonder that surpasses the navigation = of the=20 Argo. Paradiso transgresses the limits of scientific = discourse=20 through the exhaustion of analytical methods in the volitional = delight of=20 the beatific vision. 19=20

In the closure of Aquinas's speech in Dante's=20 composition, as in real life, he lapses into silence, "s=EC come = tacque la=20 gloriosa vita di Tommaso . . . (as the glorious life of Thomas = became=20 silent)." As he fails to indicate a way, a method, to the realms = of=20 paradise beyond his station, it is Beatrice who resumes speaking = to guide=20 the pilgrim. 20 Parallels, even dependencies, between = Dante's=20 poetry and Aquinas's theology have been cited seriously on reason = and=20 revelation, on grace and justification. 21 Yet Dante was no Thomist. This is not, = however,=20 because he failed to apply his scholastic doctrine and method = accurately=20 and rigorously, 22 or because his use of the sources so = transcended=20 them. 23 Dante repudiated Aquinas by his election = of poetry=20 as the successful method for articulating the ascent to divine=20 contemplation.=20

No shipwreck portends for Dante's pilgrim, who = in the=20 initial canto of Paradiso gazes upon Beatrice transfixed on = the=20 eternal wheels, and [End Page 5] so experiences an interior = transformation into an oceanic god. The poet compares him to = Glaucus,=20 24 who was Plato's figure for the mortal = condition of=20 the immortal soul, marred by evil matter as the sea, the abyss of=20 dissimilitude. In its love for wisdom the soul as Glaucus might be = raised=20 from submersion and scraped clean of its barnacles to reveal its = true=20 nature. 25 The route across the sea to the homeland = of=20 intellectual vision, charted by Plotinus and explored by = Augustine,=20 26 is voyaged by Dante's pilgrim. He = travels=20 providentially ordained, like every created nature, "per lo gran = mar de=20 l'essere (over the great sea of being)." As he soars to the sphere = of the=20 moon, Dante the poet cautions followers in small craft to turn = back to=20 shore, for his ship sails "cantando (singing)." Imitators should = not trust=20 their skiffs to the high seas, lest they perish losing sight of = his=20 mizzen. He declares his course untraveled. "L'acqua ch'io prendo = gi=E0 mai=20 non si corse (The water which I take was never crossed before)." = He sails=20 classically, by the wind of Minerva, the pilotage of Apollo, and = the=20 navigation of the Muses. Yet, the few who have held their heads = erect for=20 the bread of angels may voyage closely in his wake. He promises = them=20 wonder surpassing that of the Argonauts. 27 Little wonder that Giovanni di Paolo = selected for=20 his final illustration of Paradiso not its closure in the = wheel of=20 love that rotates the stars but this daring voyage. Dante kneels, = with=20 Beatrice indicating the Virgin, while in complement the Argo = sails, with=20 Neptune gesturing. The prow of the boat, which heads toward the = Virgin, is=20 emphatically centered in the folio. 28 In a [End Page 6] later canto = Dante=20 emphasizes that "non =E8 pareggio da picciola barca / quel che = fendendo va=20 l'ardita prora, / n=E9 da nocchier ch'a s=E9 medesmo parca. (It is = no voyage=20 for a little bark, this which my daring prow cleaves as it goes, = nor for a=20 pilot who would spare himself)." 29 Dante would not have pretended that = Aquinas's=20 vessel, the Summa theologiae, was "little." But Aquinas had = indeed=20 been a pilot who spared himself, for Dante's verb (parca), = from its=20 Latin root, means "to refrain from speaking" (Job 7:11 Vg.).=20

What is this bread of angels, which promises = erect=20 imitators of Dante a safe voyage to this haven/heaven? The = metaphor of his=20 famous apostrophe to the reader has been related to the = speculative=20 intellect in the Convivio and to the personified Wisdom of = the=20 Hebrew Scriptures. 30 Its recurrence in the Gospel (John = 6:48-51) adds a=20 liturgical meaning, since that text was the offertory for the mass = for the=20 Wednesday after Easter, when the devout few would receive = communion.=20 31 Yet, in the influential interpretation = of=20 Augustine the bread of angels is the primordial Word (John 1:1), = 32 the divine paradigm for human speech. = Dante,=20 unlike the communicants of the festive season, is unsatisfied by = the=20 Eucharistic sign of the Word made flesh. Although he does not = strive to=20 recreate the bread of angels, he does claim in Convivio = that his=20 poetry is bread, "lo pane del mio comento (the bread of my = reflection)."=20 The personal modifier implies that he himself has successfully = threshed,=20 garnered, and processed the grain from which he bakes it. It is = pure=20 bread, refined of blemishes. Because his poetry is vernacular, not = Latin,=20 it is "pane di biado e non di frumento (made of barley and not = wheat)."=20 This biado is the very term Aquinas employs in his speech = to warn=20 the pilgrim [End Page 7] about the premature harvesting of = the ears=20 (biado). Dante thus describes himself as a prudent farmer. = He also=20 compares himself to Jesus, who miraculously multiplied five barley = loaves=20 to feed the multitude at his sermon--with basketfuls left over = (Mk.=20 6:33-44). Dante declares his Convivio a commentary made = from "biado=20 (barley)" and "pane orzato del quale si satolleranno migliaia, e a = me ne=20 soperchieranno le sporte piene" (fine barley bread on which = thousands will=20 amply satisfy their hunger, while for me there will be basketsfull = left=20 over to enjoy)." At its beginning he remarks on the few who can = attain the=20 universal desire for knowledge, while the many are starved. "Oh = beati=20 quelli pochi che segiono a quella mensa dove lo pane de li angeli = si=20 manuca (Blessed indeed are those few who sit at the table where = they feed=20 on the bread of angels!)" 33=20

To attain the same "pan de li angeli (bread of = angels),"=20 Dante dares to navigate by language across the celestial sea, to = nourish=20 his mind on the pure, spiritual existence of the Word. He = encourages=20 others to follow in his wake. The posture of erectness that they = must=20 assume for the voyage was an ancient and medieval commonplace for = human=20 dignity. 34 Aquinas himself taught it in the first = book of his=20 Summa theologiae. Other animals, which enjoyed sensory = objects as=20 ordered to the basic survival of food and sex, were created with = their=20 faces, as the sensory seat, inclined toward the ground. But = humans,=20 because they enjoyed the beauty of sensory objects, were created = with=20 erect heads. 35 In another commonplace it was vision, as = the=20 primary sensory organ in that head, that alone could regard the = heavens to=20 wonder at its movement and laws. Vision penetrated philosophically = from=20 sensation through intellection to the ultimate good, beautiful, = and true.=20 36 The erectness of humans as stargazers,=20 distinguishing them from other animals with their earthbound = stare, was=20 especially a Stoic topic 37 and it was poetized in Manilius's=20 Astronomicon. 38 Dante cautioned [End Page 8] that = a human=20 venturing on the sea of being could depart from its course, "come = forma=20 non s'accorda / moltre f=EEate a l'intenzion de l'arte (even as a = shape does=20 not accord with the intention of the art)." 39 The exemplar was Ulysses, who was = shipwrecked for=20 his pride in the philosophical pursuit of the truth. 40=20

With an ancient device of the pastoral mode, = the singing=20 contest, 41 Dante metaphorically challenges = Aquinas--and, in=20 his own words, wins. Aquinas had once composed singing, singing = precisely=20 panis angelicus. This was the same metaphor, "pan de li = angeli,"=20 that Dante had prescribed his own followers toward paradise to = expect.=20 "Panis angelicus" was Aquinas's lyric composition for the divine = office of=20 the newly established feast of Corpus Christi. Although sung in = the modern=20 era as a separate hymn, it was historically the penultimate stanza = in his=20 "Sacris solemnis" for matins on that feast. 42 Aquinas's very epithet was "the angelic = doctor."=20 But Dante forces him to admit in Paradiso that his = philosophical=20 method in Summa theologiae did not accord with a = theological end;=20 so his craft veered off course and perished in the ontological = sea.=20 Dante's identification of this sea across which creatures move to = their=20 port as the divine will contradicts the intellectualism of = Aquinas's bark.=20 When Dante's own poetic phantasm fails, it is involvement in love, = not=20 knowledge, that concludes his Paradiso. 43=20

Dante's placement of Aquinas in paradise is no = facile=20 compliment. Bonaventure and his rival Joachim of Fiore are there; = Aquinas=20 and his rival Siger of Brabant (identified as a lecturer on Straw = Street)=20 are there; so are Dante and his rival Aquinas. It is a matter of = giving=20 just due. Aquinas is not elevated very high in paradise--the = exemplar of=20 the competitive monastic theology, Bernard of Clairvaux, is so = exalted.=20 44 Aquinas is merely allotted the first = solar circle.=20 Above its [End Page 9] theologians are practical persons, = then=20 higher still, contemplatives. 45 A rhetorical device popular in medieval = poetry was=20 damning with faint praise. It was an irony as a trope of allegory, = whose=20 feature was frequently associated with the practice of praising = someone=20 when criticism was intended. 46 So Erasmus the humanist reformer of = theology would=20 faintly praise Aquinas as "the most diligent of all the moderns." = 47 Lorenzo Valla before him infamously = placed Aquinas=20 in heaven in his Encomium s. Thomae, only to have the saint = play=20 the cymbals in the celestial choir. 48 A cymbal was a classical trope for a = person who=20 made the world ring with ostentatious disputations. 49 Dante was the instigator of these = renaissance=20 criticisms, although his irony has eluded the straightforward=20 investigation of Aquinas as a theological source of his poetry.=20

Before his contest with "Panis angelicus," = Dante had=20 parodied in hell another liturgical hymn, "Vexilla regis prodeunt=20 inferni," which was sung on the vigil of Passion Sunday. In the = emphatic=20 final canto of [End Page 10] Inferno he applies it = to Satan=20 in an inverted image of the crucifixion. 50 His outsinging of Aquinas's hymn with = his own hymn=20 is in continuity with this parody. Yet his success in poetic = fiction=20 failed in ecclesiastical ordinance. Aquinas was canonized the = saint; Dante=20 was not. The Dominican province even forbade his poetry. 51 In a reverse irony, however, the rue = de=20 Fouarre, or Straw Street, in Paris where Aquinas lectured his = "chaff,"=20 was renamed rue du Dante. 52 Some contemporaries honored the poet as = a=20 "theologian," although the epitaph was never carved on his tomb. = 53 Dante as poet claimed the ecstatic = contemplation=20 of Pauline vision (1 Cor. 12) 54 and confronted himself in his final = canto with its=20 ineffability. "Da quinci innanzi il mio veder fu maggio / che 'l = parlar=20 monstra, ch'a tal vista cede, / e cede la memoria a tanto = oltraggio.=20 (Thenceforward my vision was greater than speech can show, which = fails at=20 such a sight, and at such excess memory fails)." 55 Yet in imitation of scriptural and = traditional=20 allusions to ineffability and of injunctions to surpass it = prophetically=20 and charitably, Dante progressed beyond ineffability to language. = 56 Aquinas did not. Against modern = hermeneutics that=20 language constitutes reality, so that there is nothing beyond the = text, he=20 witnessed to a [End Page 11] medieval realism that = transcended=20 language, so that sometimes there was no text. The speech that = Dante=20 invents for him in Paradiso concludes with a portent of the = ascendancy of poetry over philosophy, "ch=E9 quel pu=F2 surgere, e = quel pu=F2=20 cadere (for the one may rise and the other may fall)." 57 Dante does rise to speak of the ultimate = vision of=20 God, while Aquinas remains sunken in silence.

Centre for Medieval = Studies,=20 University of Toronto

Notes

1. For an extensive bibliography of the metaphor, = dating to=20 the mid-nineteenth century, see John C. Barnes, "Vestiges of the = Liturgy=20 in Dante's Verse," in Dante and the Middle Ages: Literary and=20 Historical Essays, ed. idem and Cormac =F3 Cuillean=E1in = (Dublin: Irish=20 Academic Press for the Foundation for Italian Studies, University = College,=20 Dublin, 1995), 257-58 n. 5.=20

2. Citing C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image = (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), 10-11.=20

3. Processus canonizationis s. Thomae, = Neapoli 70,=20 ed. M.-H. Laurent, fascicule 4 of Fontes vitae s. Thomae = Aquinatis,=20 ed. Dominic M. Pr=FCmmer (Toulouse: Privat and Revue = thomiste,=20 [1912-37]), 376-77. For literary analysis of the anecdote, see = Boyle,=20 "Chaff: Thomas Aquinas's Repudiation of His Opera = omnia," New=20 Literary History (Special Medieval Issue) 28 (1997): 385-99.=20

4. See Roger Dragonetti, Le mirage des = sources: L'art du=20 faux dans le roman m=E9di=E9val (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 17-42.=20

5. See James A. Weisheipl, Friar Thomas = D'Aquino: His=20 Life, Thought, and Works, rev. ed. (Washington, D.C.: Catholic = University of America Press, 1983), 362, 332.=20

6. Antoine Dondoine, ed., "La lettre de saint = Thomas =E0=20 l'Abb=E9 du Montecasin," in St. Thomas Aquinas 1274-1974 = Commemorative=20 Studies, 2 vols. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval = Studies,=20 1974), 1:87-108. Its circumstances--during the year 1874 of the = centenary=20 of Aquina's death, on the feast of Gregory the Great, in a = manuscript of=20 Gregory's Moralia in Iob--replicate the adynaton of the = original=20 anecdote, in which the experience that arrested Aquinas's work = occurred on=20 the feast of St. Nicholas in the chapel of St. Nicholas. For = rhetorical=20 analysis, see Boyle, "Chaff." Another blatant device is the = triumphalist=20 ability of the Benedictines to elicit a response from Aquinas when = the=20 Dominicans had failed. Aquinas entered the newer Dominican order = against=20 the wishes of his family that he become a Benedictine; thus the=20 Benedictines claim him in the end as their own. Other rhetorical = topics=20 are the country (Montecassino) vs. the city (Naples) and the = monastic=20 cloister vs. the fraternal chapel.=20

7. All of the publications examined have "straw," = e.g.=20 Weisheipl, Friar Thomas, 322.=20

8. Aquinas, In IV Sententiarum 15.1.4b; = 21.1.1b; and=20 Index thomisticus, s.v., "palea."=20

9. Dante, Convivio, ed. Ernesto Giacomo = Parodi and=20 Flaminio Pellegrini, in Le opere di Dante, ed. Societ=E0 = dantesca=20 italiana (Florence: R. Emporad e figlio, 1921). For the critical = judgment=20 that the work is a failure, see recently John A. Scott, "The = Unfinished=20 Convivio as a Pathway to the Comedy," Dante = Studies=20 113 (1995): 31-56.=20

10. Dante, La vita nuova 42, ed. Michele = Barbi, in=20 Opere.=20

11. Dante, Paradiso 33.85-87; The = Divine Comedy:=20 Paradiso, trans. Charles S. Singleton, 2 vols., Bollingen = Series, 80=20 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 2:377. The text is = La=20 "Commedia" secondo l'antica vulgata, ed. Giorgio Petrocchi, 4 = vols.=20 (Milan: Mondadori, 1966-68), as reproduced in Singleton's volume. = For this=20 frequently interpreted metaphor, see Jesse M. Gellrich, The = Idea of the=20 Book in the Middle Ages: Language Theory, Mythology, and = Fiction=20 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 157-66.=20

12. John Ahern, "Binding the Book: Hermeneutics = and=20 Manuscript Production in Paradiso 33," Publications of the = Modern=20 Language Association of America 97(5) (1982): 800-9.=20

13. Dante, Paradiso 13. For previous = studies of=20 this canto, see Courtney Cahill, "The Limitations of Difference in = Paradiso XIII's Two Arts: Reason and Poetry," Dante = Studies=20 114 (1996): 245-69, which uncovers the allusion to Ovid,=20 Metamorphoses 8.210-11; Teodolinda Barolini, The = Undivine=20 Comedy: Detheologizing Dante (Princeton: Princeton University = Press,=20 1992), 203-5; Ettore Bonora, "Di fra Tommaso il discreto latino = (Sulla=20 lingua del canto di san Francesco)," Giornale storico della = letteratura=20 italiana 104 (1987): 161-80; Peter Dronke, Dante and = Medieval Latin=20 Traditions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), = 82-102;=20 Marziano Guglielminetti, "Paradiso XIII," in L'Arte del-
l' = interprete: Studi critici offerti a Giovanni Getto (Cuneo: = Arciere,=20 1984), 67-95; Giuseppe Vandelli, "Il canto XIII del = Paradiso," in=20 Letture dantesche, ed. Giovanni Getto, 3 vols. (Florence: = Sansoni,=20 1964), 3:1603-24.=20

14. Dante, Paradiso 22.124-29, 151; = 27.85-86;=20 13.130; trans. Singleton, 255, 307, 149.=20

15. Dante, Paradiso 13.121-23; trans. = Singleton,=20 149. For the convergence of alimentary and navigational metaphors, = see=20 also Convivio 2.1.=20

16. Dante, Paradiso 13.136-38; trans. = Singleton,=20 149.=20

17. See Ernst R. Curtius, European Literature = and the=20 Latin Middle Ages, trans. Willard R. Trask (London: Routledge = and=20 Kegan Paul, 1953), 128-30.=20

18. Dante, Paradiso 13.34-36, 49, 95-106; = trans.=20 Singleton, 147.=20

19. James Simpson, "Poetry as Knowledge: Dante's = Paradiso XIII," Forum for Modern Language Studies 25 = (1989):=20 329-43.=20

20. Dante, Paradiso 14.5-6, 8; trans. = Singleton,=20 153.=20

21. Seminally by Singleton, Commedia: = Elements of=20 Structure, 2 vols. in 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University = Press,=20 1954), 1:66; 2:17-19, 43-53, 57-60, 64-66, 142-43. See more = recently Bruno=20 Panvini, "La concezione tomistica della grazia nella Divina=20 commedia," Letture classensi 17 (1988): 69-85; Eleonore = Stump,=20 "Dante's Hell, Aquinas's Moral Theory, and the Love of God," = Canadian=20 Journal of Philosophy 16 (1986): 181-98; Jerry Griswold, = "Aquinas,=20 Dante, and Ficino on Love: An Explication of the Paradiso, = XXVI,=20 25-39," in Studies in Medieval Culture, ed. John R. = Sommerfeldt and=20 E. Rozanne Elder, 8-9 (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, Western = Michigan=20 University Press, 1976), 151-61.=20

22. Pace Kenelm Foster, The Two Dantes and = Other=20 Studies (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 1977), 56-66; = Etienne=20 Gilson, Dante the Philosopher, trans. David Moore (London: = Faber=20 and Faber, 1948); and the voluminous arguments of Bruno Nardi.=20

23. Pace Dronke, Dante, xii.=20

24. Dante, Paradiso 1.64-69.=20

25. Plato, Politicus 273d. For Dante's = imitation of=20 Ovid's version in Metamorphoses 13.904-58, see Kevin = Brownlee,=20 "Pauline Vision and Ovidian Speech in Paradiso 1," in = The Poetry=20 of Allusion: Virgil and Ovid in Dante's "Commedia," ed. = Rachel=20 Jacoff and Jeffrey T. Schnapp (Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University = Press,=20 1991), 210-14.=20

26. For documentation of the Platonist maritime = topic, see=20 Boyle, "Cusanus at Sea: The Topicality of Illuminative Discourse," = Journal of Religion 71 (1991): 183-90.=20

27. Dante, Paradiso 1.109-14, 129-35; = 2.1-18;=20 trans. Singleton, 11, 15. For the ontological import of the = address to the=20 reader, see William Franke, Dante's Intepretive Journey = (Chicago:=20 University of Chicago Press, 1996), 37-81. He specifically and = correctly=20 notes Dante's opposition to Aquinas's denial of "ontological = efficacy and=20 depth to poetic language," p. 58. For the novelty of the address = as a=20 structuring device, see Erich Auerbach, "Dante's Address to the = Reader,"=20 Romance Philology 7 (1953-54): 268-79; Leo S. Spitzer, "The = Addresses to the Reader in the Commedia," Italica 32 = (1955):=20 143-65. This passage is frequently commented. See Gabriele Muresu, = "Dante=20 tra ragione e intelletto ("Par." II)," Rassegna della = letteratura=20 italiana 91 (1987): 5-23; Dronke, Dante, 20-24; Piero = Boitani,=20 "The Sibyl's Leaves: A Study of Paradiso XXXII," Dante=20 Studies 96 (1978): 115-18.=20

28. F. 190r reproduced in John Pope-Hennessy, = Paradiso:=20 The Illuminations to Dante's "Divine Commedy" by Giovanni di = Paolo=20 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993), 189, 190-91, and see his = introduction,=20 pp. 59-60; Charles H. Taylor and Patricia Finley, Images of the = Journey=20 in Dante's "Divine Comedy" (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University = Press,=20 1997), 263, fig. 251. For the closing model, see Freccero, "The = Final=20 Image: Paradiso XXXIII, 144," in Dante: The Poetics of=20 Conversion, ed. Rachel Jacoff (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard = University=20 Press, 1986), 245-57.=20

29. Dante, Paradiso 23.67-68; trans. = Singleton,=20 261.=20

30. Singleton, trans., Paradiso 3:37, = citing=20 Convivio 4.22.13; Ps. 77:25; Wis. 16:20; Purgatorio=20 31.128-29.=20

31. W. J. O'Brien, "'The Bread of Angels' in=20 Paradiso II: A Liturgical Note," Dante Studies 97 = (1979):=20 99-101. For a comprison of the Eucharist with the episode of Conte = Ugolino, see John Freccero, "Bestial Sign and Bread of Angels:=20 Inferno XXXII and XXXIII," in Dante, 152-66.=20

32. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos = 119.2, ed.=20 Eligius Dekkers and Iohannes Fraipont, 3 vols., Corpus = christianorum=20 series latina, 38-40 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1956), 40:1778-79. This = clarifies=20 the metaphor as the pre-existent Verbum.=20

33. Dante, Convivio 1.2, 1.3, 10, 13, 1; = The=20 Banquet, trans. Christopher Ryan, Stanford French and Italian = Studies,=20 61 (Saratoga, Ca.: Anma Libri, 1989), 31, 39, 14.=20

34. For the commonplace, see Boyle, Senses of = Touch:=20 Human Dignity and Deformity from Michelangelo to Calvin, = Studies in=20 Medieval and Reformation Thought, 71 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998), = esp.=20 31-45. Thus the pilgrim raises his head more erectly to speak in = Dante,=20 Paradiso 3.5-6.=20

35. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 1 q. = 90 art. 3=20 ad 3. The text is in Opera omnia, 16 vols. (Rome: Polyglota = s. c.=20 de propaganda fide, 1882-1948).=20

36. The classical exemplar is Plato, = Respublica=20 7.532; Timaeus 91e-92a; Cratylus 399e. For a = medieval=20 Platonist who preserved the tradition, see Boethius, De = consolatione=20 philosophiae 5.5.=20

37. Seneca, Naturales quaestiones 1. = praef. 10-13.=20

38. Manilius, Astronomicon lines 883-87, = 893-95;=20 897-910.=20

39. Dante, Paradiso 1.127-30.=20

40. Freccero, "The Prologue Scene" and "Dante's = Ulysses,"=20 in Dante, pp. 15-24. See more recently, Massimo Seriacopi, = All'=20 estremo della "prudentia": l'Ulisse di Dante, Zaffiri, 1 = (Rome: Zauli=20 arti grafiche, 1994).=20

41. Beginning with Theocritus, Idyll 5.=20

42. Thomas Aquinas, "Sacris solemnis" in = Opuscula=20 theologica, vol. 29 of Opera omnia, 34 vols. (Paris, = 1876),=20 336. For his probable authorship, see Pierre-Marie Gy, "L'Office = du Corpus=20 Christi et s. Thomas d'Aquin: =C9tat d'une recherche," Revue = des sciences=20 philosophiques et th=E9ologiques 64 (1980): 491-507; and for a = recent=20 review of his role, Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist = in Late=20 Medieval Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, = 1990),=20 185-96.=20

43. Dante, Paradiso 3.79-87; 33.142-45.=20

44. For his role, see Fausta Drago Riviera, = S. Bernardo=20 e l'ascesa mistica nel "Paradiso," Quaderni, 12 (Milan: = Societ=E0 Dante=20 Alighieri, 1995); Steven Botterill, Dante and the Mystical = Tradition:=20 Bernard of Clairvaux in the "Commedia," Cambridge Studies in = Medieval=20 Literature, 22 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); = Mario=20 Aversano, San Bernardo e Dante: Teologia e poesia della = conversione=20 (Salerno: Edisud, 1990).=20

45. Dante, Paradiso 10.137; 11-13, 31, = 14-22.=20

46. See D. H. Green, "On Damning with Faint = Praise in=20 Medieval Literature," Viator 6 (1975): 117-69, and idem, = Irony=20 in the Medieval Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University = Press, 1979),=20 9. He cites Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.6.54-55 = and=20 Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 11.21.41. For the = difference=20 between medieval and modern irony, see also Simon Gaunt, The=20 Troubadours and Irony, Cambridge Studies in Medieval = Literature, 3=20 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5-38.=20

47. Erasmus, Ratio verae theologiae in=20 Ausgew=E4hlte Werke, ed. Hajo Holborn and Annemarie Holborn = (Munich:=20 C. H. Beck, 1964), 183. See aksi J.-P. Massaut, "Erasme et saint = Thomas,"=20 in Colloquia Erasmiana Turonensia: Stage internationale = d'=E9tudes=20 humanistes 12e, Tours, 1969, ed. Jean Claude Margolin, 2 vols., De = P=E9trarque =E0 Descartes, 24 (Paris: J. Vrin, 1972), 2:581-611. = The philology=20 of the compliment betrays it as disparaging irony. Although = "moderns"=20 (neoteroi) neutrally denotes chronological sequence, it = also=20 pejoratively denotated philosophical doctrine, especially Stoic = logic for=20 treating expression, rather than meaning, in pedantic labor at = useless=20 syllogisms. For the philosophical term, see "Appendix: Who Are the = neoteroi?" in Galen's "Institutio logica," = trans.=20 John Spangler Kieffer (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University = Press,=20 1964), 130-33. For the political term meaning sedition and = revolution, as=20 applied to religious innovation and heresy, see Demetrias J. = Constantelos,=20 "The Term Neoterikoi (Innovators) in the Exabiblos = of=20 Constantine Aremenopolos and Its Cultural-Linguistic = Implications," in=20 Charanis Studies: Essays in Honor of Peter Charanis, ed. = Angeliki=20 E. Laiou-Thomadakis (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University = Press, 1980),=20 1-18.=20

48. Lorenzo Valla, Encomium s. Thomae in = Opera=20 omnia, ed. Eugenio Garin, 2 vols. (Basel, 1540; rpt. Turin: = Bottega=20 d'Erasmo, 1962), 2:390-96. See Salvatore I. Camporeale, Lorenzo = Valla=20 tra medioevo e rinascimento: Encomion s. Thomae - 1457, Memorie=20 domenicane 7 (1977).=20

49. Pliny, Historia naturalis praef. 25.=20

50. Freccero, "The Sign of Satan," in = Dante,=20 169-70, citing Inferno 34.1. For Casella's profane love = song, which=20 intrudes on the hymns and psalms of Purgatorio, see = recently=20 Amilcare A. Iannucci, "Casella's Song and the Tuning of the Soul," = Thought 65 (1990): 27-46.=20

51. Monumenta ordinis fratrum praedicatorum=20 historica, vol. 22: Acta capitulorum provincialium = provinciae=20 romanae (1243-1344), ed. Thomas Kaeppeli and Antonio Dondaine = (Rome:=20 Institutum historicum fratrum praedicatorum, 1941), 286, cited by = Foster,=20 Two Dantes, 65.=20

52. Noted without the irony by Singleton, = Paradiso,=20 vol. 2: Commentary, 192 n. 137.=20

53. Giovanni del Virgilio, "theologus Dantes," = epitaph=20 intended for Dante's tomb, in Dante: The Critical Heritage=20 1314(?)-1870, ed. Michael Caesar (London: Routledge, 1989), = 108. See=20 also Robert Hollander, "Dante theologus-poeta," Dante=20 Studies 94 (1976): 91-136; Dennis John Costa, "Dante as a=20 Poet-Theologian," Dante Studies 89 (1971): 61-71.=20

54. Joseph A. Mazzeo, "Dante and the Pauline = Modes of=20 Vision," Harvard Theological Review 50 (1957): 275-306; = Nardi,=20 Dante e la cultura medievale, ed. Paolo Mazzantini, rev. = ed. (Rome:=20 Laterza, 1983), 283-318.=20

55. Dante, Paradiso 33.55-57; trans. = Singleton,=20 375.=20

56. Botterill, "'Quae non licet homini loqui': = The=20 Ineffability of Mystical Experience in Paradiso I and the=20 Epistle to Can Grande," Modern Language Review 83 = (1988):=20 340-41. My theological judgment of his achievement is also shared, = eloquently so, by Botterill, Dante and the Mystical = Tradition,=20 251-52; Freccero, "Final Image," 245-46. For language in the final = canto,=20 see also Glenn C. Arbery, "Adam's First Word and the Failure of = Language=20 in Paradiso XXXII," in Sign, Sentence, Discourse: = Language in=20 Medieval Thought and Literature, ed. Julian N. Wasserman and = Lois=20 Roney (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1989), 31-44.=20

57. Dante, Paradiso 13.142; trans. = Singleton, 151.

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